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Effective  Expression 

A  Textbook  on  Composition  and  Rhetoric 

For  the  Four  Years  of  High  School 

And  the  First  Year  of  College 


By 
CHARLES  ELBERT  RHODES,  A.M. 

Assistant  Principal  and  former  head  of  the  Department 
of  English,  Lafayette  High  School;  Buffalo,  New  York. 
Lecturer  on  English  at  the  University  of  Buffalo. 
Instructor  in  English,  Chautauqua  Summer  Schools. 
Editor  of  Thackeray's  Barry  Lyndon,  Mrs. 
Gaskell's    Cranford,    Old    Testament   Narratives,    etc. 


THE    GREGG   PUBLISHING   COMPANY 


NEW  YORK 


BOSTON  SAN   FRANCISCO 


Copyright,    192 1,    by   The 
Gregg  Publishing  Company 

g  58-F-5 


PRINTED  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


FOREWORD 

(For  the  Teacher) 

As  long  as  people  write  there  will  be  occasional  new 
books  to  help  them  do  it.  We  see  no  need  of  apolo- 
gizing for  adding  one  more  book  upon  a  subject  so 
thoroughly  treated;  a  live  subject  constantly  demands 
fresh,  new  books  to  keep  it  alive.  There  would  be 
cant  and  a  deadening  sameness  in  the  teaching  of  Eng- 
lish composition  if  we  did  not  from  time  to  time  have 
presented  to  us  the  new  reactions  of  teachers  who 
have  taught  with  their  minds  open  and  with  a  view 
to  aiding  others  in  their  task.  We  believe  we  have 
something  to  offer,  and  we  offer  it. 

Every  teacher  has  discovered  that  pupils,  as  a  rule, 
do  not  like  English  composition.  They  look  upon  it 
as  a  meaningless  and  perfunctory  kind  of  drudgery 
which  must  be  endured  in  order  to  get  through  the 
subject;  but  they  see  no  pleasure,  and  little  good  in 
it.  If  we  are  frank  with  ourselves,  some  of  us  will  have 
to  admit  that  in  our  student  days  we,  too,  looked  upon 
the  writing  of  compositions  with  disfavor.  In  the  case 
of  some  of  us,  the  reason  for  our  attitude  is  very  evi- 
dent: we  were  told  to  bring  in  compositions;  we  were 
not  shown  what  they  are  nor  how  to  write  them.  The 
task  was  next  to  impossible.  May  it  not  be  true  that 
the  difficulties  would  be  removed  from  the  way  of  our 
pupils  if  we  should  give  them  a  better  point  of  view, 

iii 

460972 


iv  FOREWORD 

remove  their  prejudices,  and  substitute  for  the  con- 
ception of  composition  as  drudgery,  the  better  one 
that  it  is  a  creative  process  whereby  something  worth 
while  is  produced  as  the  artisan  produces  an  automo- 
bile, as  the  artist  produces  a  master  painting? 

This  book  is  the  expansion,  the  development,  of  our 
definition  of  composition:  Composition  is  the  process 
whereby  the  raw  material  of  thoughts  and  emotions  is 
made  into  the  finished  product  of  effective  expression. 
After  fifteen  years  of  experience  with  high-school  pupils, 
college  Freshmen,  and  with  teachers  in  a  leading  sum- 
mer school,  the  writer  of  this  book  is  thoroughly  con- 
vinced that  the  conception  of  composition  given  in  our 
definition  does  remove  prejudices,  does  give  a  new 
point  of  view,  and  does  give  a  new  incentive  to  the 
pupil,  which  makes  him  look  upon  composition  writing 
as  a  challenge  to  all  his  powers  of  brain  and  heart.  The 
idea  of  producing  something  does  appeal  to  all  wide- 
awake pupils.  The  plan  works.  The  theory  has  been 
thoroughly  tested  in  abundant  practice.  If  composi- 
tion is  presented  as  this  book  explains  it,  most  of  the 
difficulties  of  the  subject  vanish,  and  in  their  place 
comes  the  joy  of  accomplishment.  This  conception 
of  composition  becomes: 

".  .  .  The  Power  that  drives  behind, 
Guiding  the  purposes,  taming  the  mind, 
Holding  the  runaway  wishes  back, 
Reining  the  will  to  one  steady  track, 
Speeding  the  energies  faster,  faster, 
Triumphing  over  disaster." x 


1 "  Work,"  by  Angela  Morgan. 


FOREWORD  v 

We  trust  we  have  made  the  book  self-explanatory. 
We  have  emphasized  " getting  ready  to  write"  in  an 
introductory  chapter,  for  it  is  the  best  approach  to 
the  subject;  we  have  treated  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciples and  the  rhetorical  qualities,  vitally,  for  too  often 
they  have  been  but  empty  words;  we  have  shown  the 
philosophy  of  the  paragraph  and  the  topic-sentence, 
together  with  the  relation  of  the  topic-sentence  to  the 
method  of  development,  for  the  paragraph  is  the  unit 
of  the  composition,  and  mastery  of  it  goes  far  toward 
mastery  of  the  whole  subject.  We  have  corrected  the 
popular  conception  that  rhetoric  is  flowery  writing  by 
showing  that  it  is  the  art  of  effective  writing;  we  have 
shown  that  diction,  grammar,  the  use  of  figures  of 
speech,  and  the  study  of  poetry  are  essential  for  all 
who  would  so  handle  "pure,  crude  facts,"  the  raw 
material,  as  to  make  the  finished  product  effective. 
We  have  shown  that  oral  composition  is  best  treated 
along  with  written  composition  and  that  such  a  method 
both  saves  time  and  increases  efficiency.  The  chapter 
on  The  Finished  Product  reveals  the  importance  of 
bringing  the  knowledge  of  literature  to  bear  upon  our 
writing,  and  shows  how  and  what  to  read  until  one 
has  formed  his  own  taste  and  needs  less  guidance. 

We  have  retained  the  usual  names  for  the  four  chief 
forms  of  discourse,  Narration,  Description,  Exposition, 
and  Argumentation,  for  we  see  no  good  reason  for  dis- 
continuing their  use.  On  the  contrary,  we  fail  to  see 
how  a  teacher  can  comply  with  the  requirements  of 
the  New  York  State  syllabus  and  the  Uniform  College 


vi  FOREWORD 

Entrance    requirements,    unless    we     use    the    same 
nomenclature. 

In  Narration,  we  have  emphasized  motivation,  for 
it  is  the  secret  of  plot  construction,  and  have  dwelt  at 
length  upon  short-story  writing  and  upon  dramatiza- 
tion, because  they  furnish  practice  in  handling  situa- 
tions. In  Description,  we  have,  as  our  definition  shows, 
made  more  than  is  customary  of  the  emotional  point 
of  view  and  of  informal  description,  for  they  are  both 
vital  to  a  real  understanding  of  the  subject.  We  have 
treated  Exposition  as  the  commonest  form  of  discourse 
and  tried  to  make  it  eminently  practical  by  applying 
it  to  literary  criticism,  the  making  of  abstracts,  ex- 
plaining situations  in  novels,  and  to  class  recitations. 
In  Argumentation,  we  have  distinguished  between  the 
informal  and  formal  types,  and  have  given  sufficient 
logical  tests  to  insure  facility  in  determining  what  con- 
stitutes real  evidence,  such  as  may  be  offered  as  proof. 
We  have  especially  emphasized  the  need  and  the  method 
of  finding  the  main  issues,  which  is  the  vital  thing  in 
argumentation. 

While  we  have  used  the  terms  Narration,  Description, 
Exposition,  and  Argumentation,  we  have  been  careful 
to  point  out  that  they  are  academic  distinctions  used 
to  classify  the  various  forms  of  the  finished  product, 
and  that  they  are  not  to  be  used  mechanically,  nor  to 
be  considered  like  the  water-tight  compartments  of  a 
ship  with  no  inter-communication.  On  the  contrary, 
we  have  shown  that  even  single  paragraphs  may  con- 
tain examples  of  all  four  forms.    We  have  shown  that, 


FOREWORD  vii 

academically,  we  should  be  able  to  distinguish  these 
forms  and  to  produce  them;  but  that,  in  actual  writing 
and  speaking,  we  should  not  be  hampered  by  them  to 
the  extent  of  being  artificial. 

Effective  expression  is  intended  for  the  four  years  of 
the  high-school  course  and  college  Freshman  English. 
We  have  not  tried,  however,  to  dictate  the  order  of  the 
work  for  the  various  years.  Practices  differ  in  different 
states.  It  is  left  for  the  teacher  to  adapt  the  principles 
of  the  book  to  the  work  of  each  year,  as  circumstances 
may  dictate.  The  chapters  on  Getting  Ready  to  Write, 
The  Rhetorical  Essentials  of  Composition,  Diction,  The 
Paragraph,  Oral  English,  and  The  Use  of  Figures  of 
Speech,  will  require  attention  each  year  of  the  course. 
The  teacher's  own  judgment  and  the  prescriptions  of 
the  syllabus  followed  will  furnish  the  only  criteria 
whereby  to  decide  just  what  to  do  each  year  and  how 
to  make  composition  grow  upon  the  pupils  from  year 
to  year,  so  that  they  are  led  to  comprehend  the  phil- 
osophy of  it  and  to  apply  its  principles  so  as  to  increase 
gradually  in  the  power  of  effective  expression. 

The  teacher  who  heeds  these  suggestions  will,  we 
believe,  be  able  to  substitute  interest  in  composition 
for  prejudice  against  the  subject  and  go  a  long  way 
toward  inspiring  pupils  to  find  a  real  delight  in  creating 
finished  products  of  effective  expression  which  will  chal- 
lenge the  attention  and  hold  the  interest  of  others. 

Charles  Elbert  Rhodes. 

May,  1921 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Foreword  (For  the  Teacher) iii 

Chapter  I.     Getting  Ready  to  Write 1 

Composition.  A  Composition.  Composition  and  Rhetoric. 
The  Purpose  of  this  Book.  Something  to  Say.  Impression  and 
Expression.  Sufficient  Material.  Sources  of  Material.  Mate- 
rial from  Experience.  Material  from  the  Imagination.  Ma- 
terial from  Reading.  The  Organization  of  Material.  Evaluat- 
ing the  Material.  Review  Questions.  Suggestions  for  exercises 
in  gathering,  selecting,  and  organizing  material. 

Chapter  II.  The  Rhetorical  Essentials  of  Composition  .  16 
The  Purpose  of  Expression.  Unity.  Coherence.  The  Quali- 
ties of  the  Finished  Product.  Clearness.  Force.  Interest  as  a 
Result  of  Force.  Elegance.  The  Personal  Touch.  Testing 
the  Work  According  to  the  Principles.  Revision.  Suggestions 
for  practice  in  applying  the  rhetorical  principles,  laid  down  in 
this  chapter,  to  material  in  preparation  for  writing. 

Chapter  III.     Diction 52 

Barbarisms.  Vulgarisms.  Improprieties.  Slang.  Good  Use. 
Reputable  Use.  National  Use.  Present  Use.  The  Writer's 
Problem.  Vocabulary  Building.  The  Value  of  an  Adequate 
Dictionary.  Denotation.  Connotation.  The  Right  Word  for 
Clearness.  The  Right  Word  for  Force.  The  Right  Word  for 
Elegance.  Euphonious  Words.  Suggestions  and  Exercises  in 
Diction. 

Chapter  IV.     The  Paragraph 93 

The  Necessity  for  Paragraphs.  The  Length  of  Paragraphs. 
The  Topic  Sentence.  The  Repetition  of  the  Topic  Sentence. 
Kinds  of  Paragraphs.  The  Isolated  Paragraph.  The  Related 
Paragraph.  The  Introductory  Paragraph.  The  Transitional 
Paragraph.  The  Summarizing  Paragraph.  Paragraph  Devel- 
opment. What  Method  to  Use.  Paragraph  Developed  by 
Giving  Details.  Paragraph  Developed  by  Comparison.  Re- 
view Suggestions. 


x  CONTEXTS 

PAGE 

Chapter  V.    Letter  Writing 130 

The  Place  of  Letter  Writing  in  Literature.  Good  Form  Essen- 
tial in  Letter  Writing.  Social  or  Friendly  Letters.  Titles. 
The  Ordinary  Conventions  of  Informal,  Friendly  Letters. 
1.  The  Heading.  2.  The  Salutation.  3.  The  Address.  4. 
The  Body  of  the  Letter.  5.  The  Closing.  6.  The  Superscrip- 
tion. Formal  Notes.  Business  Letters.  1.  The  Heading.  2. 
The  Inside  Address.  3.  The  Salutation.  4.  The  Body  of  the 
Letter.  5.  The  Complimentary  Close.  6.  The  Signature. 
Exercises  in  Letter  Writing. 

Chapter  VI.    Oral  Composition 165 

The  Paragraph  in  Oral  Composition.  How  Oral  Differs  from 
Written  Expression.  Oral  Diction.  Oral  Phrasing.  Transi- 
tions. Emphasis.  Denotation  and  Connotation  in  Oral  Com- 
position. Connotation  and  Reserve  Power.  Planning  for  Oral 
Composition.  The  Essentials  of  Good  Speaking.  Self-mastery. 
Poise.  Proper  Breathing.  Vocalization.  Two  Aims  in  Voice 
Training.  Enunciation  and  Articulation.  Pronunciation. 
The  Pleasing  Voice.  Modulation  and  Adaptation.  Pitch.  In- 
flections or  Slides.  Kinds  of  Inflections.  The  Circumflex  In- 
flection. Rate  of  Speaking.  Pauses.  Vocal  Emphasis  or  Force. 
Gesture.  Practice  in  Oral  Composition.  Reading  Aloud.  Dec- 
lamation. Kinds  of  Speeches.  Announcements.  Introduc- 
tions. After-dinner  Speeches.  The  Oration.  The  Lecture. 
Other  Forms  of  Speeches.    To  the  Teacher. 

Chapter  VII.     Narration 225 

Kinds  of  Narration.  Point  of  View  in  Narration.  Material  of 
Narration.  The  Introduction  in  Narration.  Motivation. 
Simple  Narration.  Plot  Narration.  Plot  Development.  Ed- 
gar Allan  Poe's  Requisites  of  the  Short  Story.  Completing 
Stories.  The  Paragraph  in  Narration.  Action  in  Narration. 
Characters  in  Narration.  Introduction  of  Characters.  Con- 
versation in  Narrative.  The  Climax  in  Narration.  The  Final 
Tests  of  Efficiency  in  Narration.  The  Tests  of  Unity.  The 
Test  of  Coherence.  The  Test  of  Proportion.  Dramatization. 
The  Essentials  of  the  Drama.  Pageants.  Exercises  in  Drama- 
tization for  Practice.  Dramatizing  Poems,  Short  Stories,  and 
Scenes  from  Books.  Exercises  in  Planning  Pageants.  Descrip- 
tion in  Narration.  Exposition  and  Narration.  Argumentation 
in  Narration.  Summary  of  Narration.  Review  Questions  and 
Theme  Assignments. 


CONTENTS  xi 

PAGE 

Chapter  VIII.     Description 275 

The  Material  of  Description.  Local  Point  of  View  in  Descrip- 
tion. Mental  and  Emotional  Points  of  View.  The  First  Gen- 
eral Impression.  Exact  and  Artistic  Description.  Artistic  or 
Literary  Description.  Kinds  of  Literary  Description.  De- 
tailed Description.  Impressionistic  Description.  Suggestive 
or  Informal  Description.  What  to  Describe.  Unity  in  De- 
scription. The  Grouping  of  Details — Coherence.  Grouping 
and  Wording  Important  Details  for  Proportion — Emphasis. 
Methods  of  Securing  Emphasis.  Diction  in  Description.  Con- 
cluding Word. 

Chapter  IX.     Exposition 326 

Exposition  and  Argumentation.  Definition  of  Exposition. 
The  Means  of  Exposition.  Exposition  by  Synonym.  Special 
Forms  of  Exposition.  Exposition  of  a  Situation  in  a  Story. 
Exposition  of  Character.  The  Abstract.  Literary  Criticism 
and  Book  Reviews.  Cautions.  The  Editorial.  Exposition  by 
Analysis.  Limiting  the  Subject.  The  Outline  in  Exposition. 
Essentials  of  an  Outline.  The  Writings  of  Edgar  Allan  Poe. 
A  Simple  Plan  for  an  Expository  Composition.  A  Still  Simpler 
Plan  for  an  Expository  Composition.  Suggestions  for  Practice 
in  Expository  Writing. 

Chapter  X.     Argumentation 387 

Informal  or  Conversational  Argumentation.  The  Raw  Mate- 
rial of  Argumentation.  Evidence  and  Not  Evidence.  Evidence 
of  Fact.  Evidence  of  Inference,  or  Reasoning  from  Facts.  In- 
duction. The  Fallacies  of  Induction.  Deductive  Reasoning. 
The  Syllogism.  The  Enthymeme  or  Incomplete  Syllogism. 
Fallacies  in  Deduction.  Evading  the  Issue.  Other  Forms  of 
Reasoning.  A  Priori  or  Reasoning  from  Cause  to  Effect.  A 
Posteriori  Reasoning.  Argument  from  Sign.  Argument  from 
Example.  Argument  from  Analogy.  A  Fortiori  Argument. 
Formal  Argumentation.  Discussion  and  Debate.  The  Propo- 
sition. The  Clash  and  the  Issues.  Finding  the  Issues.  Af- 
firmative Contentions.  Negative  Contentions.  The  Brief. 
Parts  of  the  Brief.  The  Introduction  of  the  Brief.  The  Body 
of  the  Brief,  or  Proof.  The  Conclusion.  Introduction.  The 
Forensic.  The  Oral  Development  of  the  Brief.  Refutation. 
Planning  for  Rebuttal.  Persuasion.  Suggestive  Exercises  in 
Argumentation. 


xii  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Chapter  XI.    The  Use  of  Figures  of  Speech 451 

Simile.  Metaphor.  Allegory.  Personification.  Apostrophe. 
Allusion.  Epithet.  Onomatopoeia.  Metonymy.  Antithesis. 
Climax.  Anticlimax.  Repetition.  Parallelism.  Interrogation. 
Exclamation.  Alliteration.  Hyperbole.  Suggestions  for  re- 
view and  practice  in  the  use  of  figures  of  speech. 

Chapter  XII.     Composition  in  Verse 467 

Variations  in  Rhythm.  Substituted  Feet.  Catalectic,  Acata- 
lectic,  and  Hypercatalectic  Lines.  Rests  or  Csesural  Pauses. 
Identical  Rhyme.  The  Stanza.  Kinds  of  Poetry.  Epic  Poetry. 
Lyric  Poetry.    Dramatic  Poetry.    Didactic  Poetry. 

Chapter  XIII.     The  Finished  Product — Literature     .     .     .  496 

Appendix  I.    Symbols  Used  in  Marking  Compositions      .    .  514 

Appendix  II 516 

Index 525 


EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

CHAPTER  I 
GETTING   READY  TO    WRITE 

Composition.  Composition  is  a  creative  process.  It 
means,  literally,  "putting  together/'  and  is  a  formal 
arrangement  of  thoughts  in  such  a  manner  as  to  make 
them  clear  to  others  and  to  arouse  their  interest.  It 
is  the  most  effective  way  of  saying  things;  it  is 
expression. 

A  Composition.  A  composition  is  the  result,  the 
finished  product,  of  the  process  of  composition.  The 
finished  product  must  always  be  the  aim  of  the  writer, 
but  the  creative  process  is  what  demands  his  closest 
attention,  from  its  beginning  with  a  vague  desire  to 
express  something,  through  all  the  stages  of  gathering, 
valuing,  and  selecting  material,  until  the  work  is  com- 
pleted, with  the  finished  product  as  the  tangible  result. 
The  quality  of  the  composition  depends  wholly  upon 
the  ability  and  the  skill  employed  in  the  process  of 
composing. 

Composition  and  Rhetoric.  Grammar  enables  a 
writer  to  construct  correct  sentences,  but  it  does 
not   make  him  a  good  writer;    it   shows  him  what 

1 


2"  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

is:r?gM;  it  does  riot  show  him  what  is  best.  Rhetoric 
alone  can  do  that.  Rhetoric  takes  up  the  task  where 
grammar  can  no  longer  continue  it.  Rhetoric  is  the 
science  which  studies  inductively  what  men  have  writ- 
ten, and  discovers  the  principles  according  to  which 
they  have  made  their  writings  effective.  Rhetoric,  as 
a  science,  aids  us  in  our  reading  and  insures  our  com- 
prehension of  what  we  read.  Rhetoric,  as  an  art,  en- 
ables us  to  write  effectively,  so  expressing  our  thoughts 
and  emotions  that  others  may  comprehend  us  and  be 
interested.  Rhetoric,  in  this  sense,  is  inseparable  from 
the  art  of  composition;  it  is  what  makes  the  process 
of  composition  capable  of  creating  artistic  finished 
products,  worthy  of  the  name  of  compositions,  at  the 
best,  what  is  called  literature. 

Do  not  be  misled  by  the  popular  conception  of  rheto- 
ric, that  it  is  mere  flowery  speech.  That  would  make 
rhetoric  something  to  be  avoided;  the  true  conception, 
already  stated,  is  what  must  be  sought  and  mastered 
by  all  who  would  so  write  and  speak  as  to  command 
attention. 

Rhetoric  furnishes  the  principles  whereby  the  process 
of  composition  is  carried  on  to  successful  completion. 
This  it  does  by  aiming  at  the  interest  of  those  addressed, 
through  the  qualities  of  clearness,  force,  and  elegance, 
which  in  turn  are  made  possible  by  the  strict  applica- 
tion of  the  principles  of  unity,  coherence,  and  pro- 
portion. 

Rhetoric  does  this  by  guiding  us  in  gathering  raw 
material  and  in  grouping  it;   by  telling  us  how  much 


GETTING  READY  TO  WRITE  3 

to  use  and  how  to  increase  the  literal  power  of  words 
by  using  them  in  a  figurative  sense.  Rhetoric  is  abso- 
lutely essential  to  the  process  of  composition. 

The  Purpose  of  this  Book,  That  the  purpose  of  this 
book  may  be  clear  from  the  outset  and  that  it  may 
become  a  sure  guide  in  the  art  of  composition,  we  state 
its  aim  and  method  in  a  definition  suggested  by  the 
industrial  world:  Composition  is  the  process  whereby 
the  raw  material  of  thoughts  and  emotions  is  made 
into  the  finished  product  of  effective  expression.  Our 
book  is  a  practical  demonstration  of  the  theory  and 
practice  of  composition  and  rhetoric  under  the  simple 
analogy  of  making  a  finished  product  out  of  raw  mate- 
rial. Experience  has  already  proved  that  this  treat- 
ment of  the  subject  appeals  to  young  writers  and 
speakers  with  unusual  force;  it  works  and  brings 
results. 

Something  to  Say.  The  first  requisite  is  to  have,  or 
to  acquire,  something  to  say,  and  to  know  just  what 
it  is.  Without  this  the  making  of  the  finished  product 
may  at  first  seem  an  unattainable  end.  One  must  have 
something  to  say;  he  must  have  more  than  enough. 
A  seed-thought  is  sufficient  for  a  beginning.  Having 
it,  one  should  have  little  difficulty  in  causing  it  to  grow 
in  the  proper  way. 

Impression  and  Expression.  To  state  the  matter  of 
gathering  raw  material  in  another  way,  a  person  must 
be  impressed  before  he  can  express  himself.  When  any- 
thing has  impressed  him  he  will  have  something  to  say. 
Impression  comes  whenever  one  becomes  conscious — 


4  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

painfully  conscious,  sometimes — that  something  is  in- 
fluencing him  through  his  senses,  his  intellect,  his  emo- 
tions, or  his  aesthetic  sensibilities.  Being  impressed  is 
having  real  experience  and  knowing  it. 

The  boy  who  takes  a  long  walk  will  doubtless  be 
impressed,  through  his  senses,  by  fatigue;  if  he  is 
observing,  his  mind  will  be  impressed  by  what  he  sees 
and  hears,  while  his  memory  will  also  retain  images  of 
things  seen  and  heard;  if  he  experiences  some  great 
joy,  or  some  narrow  escape  from  danger,  he  will  be 
emotionally  impressed;  and  if  he  appreciates  some 
beautiful  scene,  he  will  be  aesthetically  impressed.  In 
a  word,  this  boy  might  be  impressed  in  four  ways: 
physically,  mentally,  emotionally,  and  aesthetically. 
Ask  him  to  tell  about  his  walk  and  he  will  do  it.  Being 
impressed,  he  has  something  to  express.  He  has  taken 
the  first  step  toward  making  a  finished  product  of 
effective  expression;   he  has  the  raw  material. 

Impression  and  expression  are  complementary.  The 
inability,  which  we  have  all  felt,  to  express  ourselves 
when  material  was  scant,  is  sufficient  proof  of  the 
need  of  being  impressed.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
equally  true  that  impression  demands  expression.  Our 
thoughts  and  emotions  are  vague,  chaotic,  and  elusive, 
as  long  as  they  are  merely  unexpressed  thoughts  and 
emotions.  Some  of  the  greatest  thinkers  have  felt 
powerless  to  embody  all  of  their  best  thoughts  and 
feelings  in  adequate  language;  they  have  been  con- 
scious of  "  thoughts  that  break  through  language  and 
escape,"  as  Browning  puts  it.    It  is  the  expressing  of 


GETTING  READY  TO  WRITE  5 

thoughts  and  emotions  in  language  that  confines  them, 
preserves  them,  prevents  their  escape.  The  better  the 
expression,  the  smaller  the  amount  that  can  escape. 
The  fact  that  there  is  a  tendency  to  escape  is  the 
strongest  possible  plea  for  great  care  in  seeking  ade- 
quate expression.  We  think  in  terms  of  language  more 
or  less  vaguely;  when  we  embody  thought  in  definite 
language  we  first  realize  its  full  value  ourselves,  and 
can  impart  it  to  others.  We  then  know  the  value  of 
being  impressed  and  of  making  our  impressions  per- 
manent both  for  ourselves  and  for  others.  We  know 
that  impression  and  expression  are  inseparable. 

Sufficient  Material.  The  first  requisite  before  be- 
ginning to  write  is  to  obtain  sufficient  material.  To 
proceed  to  the  process  of  composition  without  sufficient 
material  is  like  trying  to  build  a  house  without  enough 
lumber,  nails,  plaster,  and  such  other  things  as  are 
necessary  for  a  complete  house.  No  carpenter  would 
undertake  such  a  hopeless  task. 

To  undertake  to  make  a  finished  product  of  expres- 
sion without  sufficient  material  is  equally  futile.  If 
one  tries  it,  the  insufficiency  will  be  revealed.  Half 
truths  will  be  offered  for  whole  ones.  The  result  will 
be  misleading  and  often  as  dangerous  as  if  untruths 
were  used.  What  is  offered  as  a  finished  product  will 
be  incomplete  and  as  ineffective  as  a  house  with  timbers 
left  out  and  with  those  that  are  used  insecurely  fas- 
tened for  want  of  enough  nails.  The  composition,  made 
from  insufficient  material,  lacks  all  the  fundamental 
rhetorical  qualities;   is  in  no  sense  a  finished  product. 


6  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

Hence,  no  careful  student  will  think  of  writing  until 
he  has  all  the  material  he  needs. 

If  he  is  wise  he  will  secure  more  than  enough.  Even 
the  builder  must  count  upon  some  lumber  being  de- 
fective; he  gets  more  than  just  enough.  To  have 
enough  for  the  final  draft  of  a  composition  the  writer 
must  first  secure  a  sufficient  amount,  so  that  he  can 
discard  all  that  the  evaluating  process  finds  unavail- 
able. The  finished  product  must  contain  only  the 
choicest  of  the  material.  In  gathering  material  we 
must  secure  enough  and  to  spare;  we  must  never  be 
content  with  scant  measure. 

Sources  of  Material.  Gathering  material  is  so  im- 
portant a  step  preparatory  to  actual  writing  that  we 
need  detailed  instruction  for  guidance.  There  are  three 
sources :  experience,  the  imagination,  and  reading.  The 
nature  of  the  subject  under  consideration  determines 
which  source  is  most  suitable.  But  generally  it  is 
found  wise  to  seek  material  from  at  least  two  sources, 
and  sometimes  all  three. 

Material  from  Experience.  Experience,  when  accom- 
panied by  observation,  is  the  best  source  of  first-hand 
information.  Poets  like  Wordsworth,  and  poet-natu- 
ralists like  Thoreau  and  John  Burroughs,  have  turned 
their  experience  to  good  literary  uses  because  they  have 
been  so  genuinely  impressed,  because  they  have  "seen 
into  the  life  of  things."  All  who  possess  what  John 
Burroughs  calls  "sharp  eyes"  are  never  in  want  of 
material  for  writing  from  experience.  Real  observation 
furnishes  facts  upon  which  the  imagination  can  build. 


GETTING  READY  TO  WRITE  7 

To  one  who  is  deeply  impressed,  facts  are  more 
than  facts;  like  the  daffodils  to  Wordsworth,  they 
become  living,  sentient  things;  they  are  sources  of 
thought. 

Material  from  the  Imagination.  The  imagination  is 
the  picturing  power.  It  is  most  active  in  children.  A 
boy  cannot  play  horse,  nor  a  girl  dolls,  without 
imagination. 

Upon  a  basis  of  facts,  the  imagination  builds  some- 
thing else  more  vivid,  more  beautiful.1  The  imagina- 
tion is  the  real  creative  force.  It  arranges  facts,  often 
dull  and  commonplace,  according  to  some  definite 
plan.  It  breathes  into  them  the  very  breath  of  life. 
Shakespeare  became  the  creator  of  perfect  characters 
and  of  undying  plays  because  of  his  imagination. 

The  child  often  seems  to  lose  much  of  his  imagina- 
tive power  when  he  passes  out  of  the  fairy-tale  age. 
But  the  only  difference  between  the  fairy  tale  and  the 
true-to-life  tale,  is  that  the  latter  is  more  restrained, 
that  it  may  be  made  true  to  life.  Both  are  products 
of  the  imagination. 

The  imagination  is  an  important  source  of  material 
because  it  enables  the  writer  to  see  "the  light  that 
never  was  on  land  or  sea,"  because  it  enables  him  "to 
give  airy  nothings  a  local  habitation  and  a  name." 
This  means  that  he  has  farsight  and  insight,  and  that 
he  can  use  his  knowledge  of  facts  to  the  fullest  possible 
extent — touch  them,  as  it  were,  with  a  magic  wand, 
and  give  them  life. 

1  See  Wordsworth's  Daffodils,  page  306. 


8  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

The  imaginative  writer  is  never  limited  by  what  he 
sees;  he  thinks  about  it,  compares  it  with  something 
suggested  by  it,  personifies  it,  apostrophizes  it,  trans- 
forms it.  It  is  the  imagination  that  brings  into  play 
the  laws  of  the  association  of  ideas,  so  that  one's  mate- 
rial actually  grows.  The  imagination  is  an  indispen- 
sable source  of  material;  without  it  the  writer  becomes 
as  mediocre  as  Mr.  Gradgrind,  enamored  of  bare  facts. 
With  it  he  enters,  or  at  least  approaches,  the  larger 
realm  of  the  poets,  the  realm  of  vital  truths. 

Material  from  Reading.  There  are  many  subjects — 
historic,  biographic,  scientific,  concerning  which  expe- 
rience and  the  imagination  are  insufficient  sources  of 
raw  material.  For  matter  upon  such  subjects  the  writer 
must  go  where  others  have  left  the  record  of  then- 
experience,  to  books. 

Great  care  is  needed  to  get  all  the  benefit  possible 
from  reading,  and  also  a  word  of  caution  lest  some 
yield  to  the  temptation  of  taking  more  than  a  legiti- 
mate amount  or  taking  without  giving  credit.  A  slav- 
ish reliance  upon  others  is  not  only  fatal  to  originality; 
it  is  intellectual  dishonesty.  To  guard  against  such 
tendencies  these  cautions  should  be  kept  in  mind: 

Read  as  many  different  authorities  as  possi- 
ble; never  only  one. 

Do  not  copy  the  language  of  the  book,  but 
make  brief  notes  of  the  facts  you  desire  to  use, 
and  in  your  own  language. 

A  method  of  note  taking  highly  commended  by  writ- 
ers of  experience  is  the  card-catalogue  system.    Cards, 


GETTING  READY  TO  WRITE  9 

or  slips  of  paper,  of  the  size  of  a  postal  card,  are  used. 
One  note  only  is  recorded  upon  each  card.  The  chief 
advantage  of  this  method  over  the  use  of  notebooks  is 
that  the  cards  maybe  sorted  so  as  greatly  to  facilitate  the 
arrangement  of  material  according  to  one's  plan  for  his 
composition.  Sorting  the  cards  into  appropriate  groups 
enables  one  to  plan  for  unity  and  coherence  from  the  first. 

Such  simple  matters  as  seeking  material  in  books,  or 
in  a  library,  without  waste  of  time  and  effort,  deserve 
consideration.  Do  not  look  at  random.  Common  sense 
will  dictate  the  consultation  of  library  card-catalogues 
as  the  only  sure  and  quick  way  of  finding  out  all  there 
is  in  a  library  upon  your  subject.  The  Reader's  Guide 
to  Periodical  Literature  will  often  make  available  much 
fresh  material.  Most  modern  books  not  only  contain 
tables  of  contents  but  topical  indexes.  Consult  these 
to  locate  material  upon  your  subject  without  reading 
whole  books.  When  whole  books,  or  chapters,  must 
be  examined,  read  by  paragraphs,  noting  topic  and 
summarizing  sentences  to  get  the  gist  of  the  thought. 
Read  every  word  only  where  intensive  study  is  re- 
quired. Following  such  commonplace  directions  will 
save  much  time  and  facilitate  the  process  of  getting 
material  from  books. 

The  Organization  of  Material.  Possessing  even  an 
abundance  of  material  does  not  mean  that  one  is  ready 
to  write.  It  is  still  only  raw  material.  Like  all  raw 
material,  it  requires  much  working  over  before  it  can 
properly  be  called  a  finished  product  of  expression. 
This  process  is  "  organizing  the  material." 


10  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

Having  the  raw  material  in  the  form  of  bare 
facts  from  reading,  notes  condensing  the  re- 
sults of  observation  and  experience,  and  notes 
indicating  additions  and  elaborations  sug- 
gested by  the  imagination,  one  should  make 
a  tentative  plan.  This  plan  should  be  a  topical 
outline  of  the  whole  composition,  indicating 
approximately  what  each  paragraph  is  to  in- 
clude. After  considerable  experience  a  men- 
tal plan  may  suffice,  but  the  beginner  cannot 
dispense  with  a  written  one. 

Evaluating  the  Material.  This  is  a  critical  step.  It 
means  the  selection  of  the  suitable  material  from  all 
that  is  available.  We  now  realize  why  it  is  necessary 
to  collect  more  material  than  at  first  seems  necessary. 
When  the  plan  is  made,  the  material  on  hand  may, 
for  the  first  time,  be  estimated  at  its  real  value  for  the 
purpose  in  view.  Much  that  promised  to  be  of  value, 
and  may  be  of  real  value  in  itself,  is  found  during  the 
judging  process  to  be  useless,  and  must  be  discarded. 
Never  use  material  simply  because  you  have  it,  or  for 
its  own  sake.  Use  only  that  which  is  of  real  value 
from  the  point  of  view  of  creating  an  effective  finished 
product.  Using  only  suitable  material  also  means  put- 
ting into  the  finished  product  nothing  that  is  trite, 
hackneyed,  or  commonplace.  It  means  using  what  is 
new,  striking,  vivid,  and  peculiarly  adaptable  for  the 
end  in  view. 

The  evaluating  process  is  also  necessary  to  deter- 
mine the  relative  worth  of  the  different  parts  of  the 
suitable  material.    It  indicates  how  properly  to  classify 


GETTING  READY  TO  WRITE  II 

it;  how  the  less  important,  yet  suitable,  material  should 
be  arranged,  in  sentences  and  paragraphs,  so  as  to  show 
that  it  is  subordinated  to  other  material. 

Careful  organization  of  the  suitable  material  must  be 
accomplished  by  means  of  clear  thinking  and  definite 
planning,  to  make  the  finished  product  interesting  and 
effective. 

Thus  far  all  material  has  been  viewed  as  raw  material 
only,  without  regard  to  the  language  to  be  employed 
to  make  it  effective.  That  important  matter  will  re- 
ceive proper  attention  in  due  time. 

Subject  and  Tftle.  To  distinguish  between  subject 
and  title  is  the  final  step  in  organization,  or  composition 
planning.  The  subject  is  large  and  general;  the  title 
is  restricted  and  specific.  The  subject  suggests  the 
whole;  the  title,  a  part.  To  attempt  to  write  upon 
large  subjects  is  to  court  failure  through  being  too 
general  and  flat.  One  cannot  be  specific  or  clear  while 
trying  to  handle  whole  subjects.  The  subject  must  be 
limited;  to  limit  a  subject  is  to  take  some  specific 
phase  of  it  and  to  make  it  concrete  and  definite.  This 
is  to  select  a  title. 

However,  it  is  not  wise  to  begin  with  a  title.  Begin 
with  general  reading  and  thinking  in  terms  of  the 
larger  subject.  Then,  when  the  title  for  the  composi- 
tion is  chosen,  it  can  be  considered  in  the  light  of  its 
relation  to  the  subject  of  which  it  is  but  a  part.  For 
instance,  if  the  title,  My  Favorite  Form  of  Recreation, 
should  be  assigned,  the  logical  method  of  preparation 
would  be  to  consider  the  general  subject,  " Recreation," 


12  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

in  a  general  and  somewhat  abstract  way,  and  then  to 
consider  other  forms  of  recreation  for  the  sake  of  com- 
parisons to  enable  the  writer  to  show  why  some  par- 
ticular form  of  recreation  is  his  favorite.  In  a  word, 
it  is  necessary  to  study  the  subject  in  order  to  do  jus- 
tice to  the  title.  To  think  of  the  title  only,  and  to 
gather  material  limited  to  the  title  without  regard  to 
the  subject  of  which  it  is  but  a  part,  is  incomplete, 
unscholarly,  and  inadequate. 

Furthermore,  the  habit  of  studying  subjects  first 
tends  to  develop  careful  thinking,  and  so  to  keep  the 
writer  from  the  rut  of  narrowness  into  which  he  must 
inevitably  fall  if  he  thinks  of  titles  only.  The  more 
carefully  one  studies  a  subject  the  more  he  recognizes 
how  impossible  it  is  to  write  about  it  as  a  whole  with- 
out indulging  in  commonplaces  and  generalities,  both 
fatal  to  interest  and  effectiveness.  Then,  too,  he  will 
know  the  need  of  further  thought  upon  an  appropriate 
and  striking  title,  and  will  be  ready  for  it  and  in  a 
position  to  appreciate  the  fundamental  rhetorical  prin- 
ciples according  to  which  the  actual  writing  must  be 
done. 

These  principles  form  the  subject  of  the  next  chapter. 

A  careful  study  of  the  following  review  questions 
should  give  facility  in  acquiring  sufficient  material,  in 
evaluating  it,  and  in  organizing  it. 

Review  Questions 

1.  Distinguish  between  composition  and  a  composition. 

2.  Show  the  value  of  grammar  and  of  rhetoric  in  composition. 

3.  What  is  rhetoric? 


GETTING  READY  TO  WRITE  13 

4.  What  is  meant  by  having  something  to  say? 

5.  What  do  you  mean  by  impression  and  what  is  its  relation  to 
■expression? 

6.  What  is  the  result  when  one  attempts  to  write  without  having 
sufficient  material? 

7.  What  constitutes  suitable  material? 

8.  What  are  the  three  sources  of  material?  Why  should  one 
learn  to  use  all  three  sources?  Give  a  topic  on  which  the  first 
would  be  the  most  serviceable.  Do  the  same  for  the  second  and 
the  third.  Give  a  topic  in  which  all  three  could  be  used  to  ad- 
vantage. 

9.  What  is  the  best  way  of  taking  notes?     Give  reasons. 

10.  What  is  meant  by  organizing  material?    How  is  it  done? 

11.  What  is  the  evaluating  process? 

12.  Why  is  a  plan  necessary? 

13.  Give  a  subject  and  then  derive  a  title  from  it.  Show  the 
relation  between  the  two.  Why  should  one  never  be  content  with  a 
title  alone? 

Suggestions  for  exercises  in  gathering,  selecting, 
and  organizing  material: 

(Note:  It  is  recommended  that  no  writing  be  attempted  while 
studying  this  chapter,  but  that  much  drill  be  given  in  the  important 
work  of  getting  ready  to  write:  getting  impressions.) 

1.  A  preliminary  plan  for  an  account  of  a  day's  outing.  All 
available  good  material  should  be  noted;  all  incidents,  episodes, 
anecdotes,  striking  occurrences,  general  results,  etc.  Then  let  the 
essential  material  be  selected  according  to  its  value  in  making  an 
interesting  sketch.  Discard  the  rest.  Again,  taking  up  the 
essential  material,  decide  which  is  worthy  of  elaborate  treatment 
and  how  properly  to  subordinate  the  rest  to  it.  In  a  word:  Or- 
ganize the  essential  material. 

2.  Assign,  for  reading  and  thought,  the  subject  "Photography." 
Books  and  articles  might  be  suggested  or  even  provided.  A  general 
talk  by  the  teacher  will  be  valuable.  Such  phases  of  the  subject  as, 
"The  Pleasures  of  Amateur  Photography,"  "Commercial  Pho- 
tography," "The  Origin  of  Photography,"  "The  Camera  Fiend," 
and  "Photographs  as  Souvenirs,"  might  be  assigned  for  oral  com- 
position work  with  good  results. 


14  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

When  satisfied  that  the  class  has  a  fair  amount  of  general  in- 
formation of  photography,  the  teacher  might  assign  some  such 
title  as,  "My  First  Failures  in  Picture  Taking  and  What  They 
Taught  Me,"  "My  Experiences  in  Hunting  with  a  Camera," 
"My  Album  and  What  It  Means  to  Me,"  "The  Camera  and  the 
Stereopticon,"  and  "The  Need  of  Good  Composition  to  Secure 
Artistic  Pictures."  Or,  as  is  often  more  satisfactory,  the  teacher 
may  allow  each  pupil  to  select  his  own  topic. 

Then  have  plans  made,  material  estimated  as  to  fitness  and 
appropriateness,  and  the  suitable  material  organized  in  accordance 
with  a  definite  plan  so  that  the  class  is  ready  to  write.  "The 
readiness  is  all." 

A  little  later  in  the  course  have  the  composition  written. 

3.  For  training  in  the  method  of  getting  material  through  the 
imagination,  some  subject  like  the  following  might  be  used:  "What 
the  Old  Fireplace  Told  Me."  The  teacher  might  get  the  class 
started  in  some  such  way  as  this:  Emphasize  the  importance  of  the 
setting  for  such  an  imaginative  sketch.  Suggest  the  fictitious 
discovery  of  an  old  house,  deserted,  but  in  a  fair  state  of  preserva- 
tion, with  furniture,  books,  some  old  newspapers,  a  bundle  of 
old  letters,  etc.  Imagine  spending  some  hours  in  the  library  of 
this  house,  before  the  fireplace,  and  amusing  oneself  by  reading 
the  old  letters  which  give  some  suggestions  concerning  the  character 
and  habits  of  a  former  occupant.  Let  the  fireplace  speak  as  an 
observer.  Make  an  outline,  select  suitable  material,  arrange  it, 
and  preserve  for  revising  and  writing  later. 

Such  exercises,  which  may  with  profit  be  extended  through  parts 
of  several  recitations,  may  be  effective  in  stimulating  the  imagina- 
tion and  training  it  for  more  difficult  tasks. 

4.  Assign  as  a  subject  the  name  of  some  well-known  historical 
character  concerning  whom  much  has  been  written.  Have  at 
least  two  biographies,  or  biographical  sketches,  read  for  general 
information.  Never  allow  one  to  get  the  idea  that  a  mere  catalogu- 
ing of  events  in  a  man's  life  is  a  character  sketch. 

Then  select  some  one  episode  in  the  man's  life,  or  some  one 
phase  of  his  character,  as  a  title,  and  gather  all  possible  material 
upon  it,  classify,  discard,  and  organize  the  material  preparatory 
to  writing.  For  example,  if  Edgar  Allan  Poe  were  the  man  whose 
life  had  been  read,  the  titles  that  might  easily  and  naturally  be 
suggested  would  be  such  as:  "Poe  and  the  Short  Story,"  "Poe 
as  the  Originator  of  the  Detective  Story,"  "The  Weird  as  Handled 


GETTING  READY  TO  WRITE  15 

by  Poe,"  "Poe  as  a  Literary  Critic,"  "The  Artistic  Qualities  of 
Poe's  Poetry,"  etc. 

In  all  such  exercises  the  fundamental  distinction  between  sub- 
ject and  title  may  be  clearly  shown  and  illustrated.  Practice  of 
this  kind  is  very  valuable. 

At  the  option  of  the  teacher  any  other  subjects  may  be  treated 
and  other  titles  drawn  from  them,  provided,  of  course,  that  the 
principles  of  this  chapter  are  actually  put  into  practice. 


CHAPTER  II 
THE  RHETORICAL  ESSENTIALS  OF  COMPOSITION 

The  basic  principles  of  rhetoric,  without  which  no 
finished  product  can  be  made,  must  be  mastered  before 
we  can  proceed  further.  These  essentials  are  so  im- 
portant that  they  must  be  applied  to  the  material  at 
every  step  in  the  process  of  making  the  finished  product 
— in  the  sentence,  in  the  paragraph,  and  in  the  whole 
composition.  They  must  be  so  applied  that  attention 
is  not  called  to  them  by  any  sort  of  artifice;  they  should 
be  used  as  naturally,  as  unconsciously,  and  as  unerr- 
ingly as  one  follows  his  multiplication  tables  in  arith- 
metic. They  will  here  be  considered  in  a  general  man- 
ner and  sufficiently  conclusive  to  prepare  the  way  for 
a  detailed  treatment  when  discussing  the  paragraph 
and  the  forms  of  discourse. 

The  Purpose  of  Expression.  The  purpose  of  all  ex- 
pression, written  and  oral,  is  to  present  thought  and 
emotion  in  language  so  as  to  influence  others.  The 
questions  naturally  arise:  How  are  we  to  influence 
others?  What  effect  are  we  to  have  upon  them?  The 
answer  is  obvious;  we  are  to  influence  them  intellect- 
ually, emotionally,  and  aesthetically.  Rhetoricians  are 
substantially  agreed  upon  this:  a  threefold  demand  of 
all  readers  and  listeners,  a  demand  that  is  intellectual, 

16 


THE  RHETORICAL  ESSENTIALS  OF  COMPOSITION     17 

emotional,  and  aesthetic,  constitutes  the  motive  and 
purpose  of  all  writers  and  speakers,  and  indicates  the 
means  whereby  they  can  best  satisfy  the  demand.  In 
a  word,  rhetoric,  as  an  art,  reveals  the  purpose  and  the 
method  of  expression;  it  gives  the  characteristics  of 
the  finished  product  and  shows  how  best  to  make  it 
effective. 

Rhetoric  both  satisfies  the  demands  of  the  reader,  or 
listener,  and  furnishes  the  means  to  the  writer  and 
speaker.  The  best  way  to  effect  one's  intellect  is  to 
explain  what  is  unknown.  Explanation  is  making  clear. 
To  make  his  message  intelligible  the  writer  or  speaker 
employs  the  first  requisite  of  rhetoric  and  the  first 
characteristic  of  the  effective  finished  product,  Clear- 
ness. To  touch  the  emotions  of  another  the  writer  and 
speaker  arouse  love,  hate,  pity,  fear,  ambition,  patriot- 
ism, heroism,  and  the  like;  and  by  so  doing  they  go 
beyond  the  sphere  of  the  intellect;  they  go  deeper  and 
make  a  more  vital  appeal;  they  arouse  interest.  This 
is  done  by  the  rhetorical  quality  known  as  Force,  the 
second  characteristic  of  the  finished  product  of  effective 
expression.  Besides  these  two  qualities  there  is  a  third, 
called  Elegance,  whose  effect  is  to  please  the  reader  or 
listener.  The  appeal  of  Elegance  is  to  the  aesthetic 
sensibilities.  Every  finished  product  of  effective  ex- 
pression must  possess  these  three  qualities. 

These  characteristic  qualities  of  the  finished  product 
constitute  the  aim  and  ideal  that  must  be  ever  before 
the  writer  and  speaker.  Before  dealing  with  them  in 
detail,  however,  we  must  turn  to  the  three  great  funda- 


18  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

mental  principles  which  enable  us  to  select  and  arrange 
the  raw  material  of  thoughts  and  emotions  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  produce  the  requisite  effective  qualities. 
They  are  Unity,  Coherence,  and  Proportion. 

Unity.  Unity  means  oneness.  It  is  sticking  to  the 
subject.  It  implies  so  limiting  the  subject  that  one 
may  stick  to  it.  Unity  concerns  itself  principally  with 
the  selecting  and  evaluating  of  the  material;  it  is  the 
principle  according  to  which  the  suitable  material  is 
assorted  and  separated  from  the  available  material.  It 
directs  us  to  discard  all  that  is  not  vitally  essential  for 
our  present  purpose  and  to  retain  all  that  is  essential 
for  the  sake  of  clearness.  Unity  requires  that  in  the 
sentence,  the  paragraph,  the  whole  composition,  every- 
thing that  is  said  should  center  around  one  definite 
idea  and  be  the  expansion  of  that  idea.  It  forbids 
running  off  on  tangents;  it  allows  no  unnecessary 
digressions  or  parenthetical  interpolations. 

Long,  rambling  sentences,  such  as  the  following,  from 
Dickens'  Little  Dorrit,  violate  the  principle  of  unity 
because  they  reveal  a  lack  of  clear  thinking  and  pre- 
sent a  jumble  of  unrelated  ideas.  Flora  Finching  is  the 
speaker  who  rushes  on  without  pause  for  punctuation 
or  transition,  as  in  the  following: 

"Ask  me  not  if  I  love  him  still  or  if  he  still 
loves  me  or  what  the  end  is  to  be  or  when,  we 
are  surrounded  by  watchful  eyes  and  it  may 
be  that  we  are  destined  to  pine  asunder  it  may 
be  nevermore  to  be  reunited  not  a  word  not  a 
breath  not  a  look  to  betray  us  all  must  be 


THE  RHETORICAL  ESSENTIALS  OF  COMPOSITION    19 

secret  as  the  tomb  wonder  not  therefore  that, 
even  if  I  should  seem  comparatively  cold  to 
Arthur  or  Arthur  should  seem  comparatively 
cold  to  me  we  have  fatal  reasons  it  is  enough 
if  we  understand  them  hush." 

— Little  Dorrit:  Charles  Dickens 

An  excellent  example  of  a  lack  of  unity,  coherence, 
emphasis,  and  of  every  other  rhetorical  quality,  is  the 
following  from  Mark  Twain's  Sketches  Old  and  New, 
and  called  Mr.  Bloke's  Item: 

"Last  evening,  about  six  o'clock,  as  Mr. 
William  Schuyler,  an  old  and  respected  citizen 
of  South  Park,  was  leaving  his  residence  to 
go  downtown,  as  has  been  his  usual  custom 
for  many  years  with  the  exception  only  of  a 
short  interval  in  the  spring  of  1850,  during 
which  he  was  confined  to  his  bed  by  injuries 
received  in  attempting  to  stop  a  runaway 
horse  by  thoughtfully  placing  himself  in  its 
wake  and  throwing  up  his  hands  and  shouting, 
which  if  he  had  done  so  even  a  single  moment 
sooner,  must  have  inevitably  have  frightened 
the  animal  still  more  instead  of  checking  its 
speed,  although  disastrous  enough  to  himself 
as  it  was,  and  rendered  more  melancholy  and 
distressing  by  reason  of  the  presence  of  his 
wife's  mother,  who  was  there  and  saw  the  sad 
occurrence,  notwithstanding  it  is  at  least 
likely,  though  not  necessarily  so,  that  she 
should  be  reconnoitering  in  another  direction 
when  accidents  occur,  not  being  vivacious  and 
on  the  lookout,  as  a  general  thing,  but  even 
the  reverse,  as  her  own  mother  is  said  to  have 


20  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

.stated,  who  is  no  more,  but  died  in  the  full 
hope  of  a  glorious  resurrection,  upwards  of 
three  years  ago,  aged  eighty-six,  being  a  Chris- 
tian woman  and  without  guile,  as  it  were,  or 
property,  in  consequence  of  the  fire  of  1849, 
which  destroyed  every  single  thing  she  had  in 
the  world.  But  such  is  life.  Let  us  all  take 
warning  from  this  solemn  occurrence,  and  let 
us  endeavor  so  to  conduct  ourselves  that  when 
we  come  to  die  we  can  do  it.  Let  us  place  our 
hands  upon  our  heart,  and  say  with  earnestness 
and  sincerity  that  from  this  day  forth  we  will 
beware  of  the  intoxicating  bowl." 

The  above  item  had  been  inserted,  says  the  writer, 
in  the  Californian  by  the  subeditor  in  the  absence  of 
the  head  editor.  The  head  editor  objected,  upon  his 
return,  and  then  the  subeditor  read  it  for  the  first  time. 
His  comment  is  so  much  to  the  point  that  we  quote  it : 

"I  have  read  it,  and  I  am  bound  to  admit 
that  it  seems  a  little  mixed  at  first  glance. 
However,  I  will  peruse  it  once  more.  .  .  . 

"I  have  read  it  again,  and  it  does  really 
seem  a  good  deal  more  mixed  than  ever.  .  .  . 

"I  have  read  it  over  five  times,  but  if  I  can 
get  at  the  meaning  of  it,  I  wish  I  may  get  my 
just  deserts.  It  won't  bear  analysis.  There 
are  things  about  it  which  I  cannot  understand 
at  all.  It  doesn't  say  what  ever  became  of 
William  Schuyler.  It  just  says  enough  about 
him  to  get  one  interested  in  his  career,  and 
^  then  drops  him.  Who  is  William  Schuyler, 
"^  anyhow,  and  what  part  of  South  Park  did  he 
live  in,  and  if  he  started  downtown  at  six 


THE  RHETORICAL  ESSENTIALS  OF  COMPOSITION    21 

o'clock  did  he  ever  get  there,  and  if  he  did, 
did  anything  happen  to  him?  Is  he  the  indi- 
vidual that  met  with  the  '  distressing  acci- 
dent'? Considering  the  elaborate  circum- 
stantiality of  detail  observable  in  the  item,  it 
seems  to  me  that  it  ought  to  contain  more 
information  than  it  does.  On  the  contrary,  it 
is  obscure — and  not  only  obscure,  but  utterly 
incomprehensible. ' ' 

We  cannot  improve  upon  that  comment. 

The  incomprehensible  item  may  be  called  "a  horrible 
example"  much  exaggerated.  But  that  emphasizes  its 
value.  In  a  lesser  degree,  but  in  a  similar  manner, 
many  so  violate  the  principle  of  unity  by  getting  further 
and  further  away  from  the  topic  and  by  inserting 
numerous  useless  and  bewildering  explanatory  phrases 
and  clauses,  that  what  they  write  is  "not  only  obscure, 
but  utterly  incomprehensible." 

Observing  the  principle  of  unity  prevents  all  such 
writing. 

As  an  example  of  a  paragraph  that  illustrates  unity, 
read  the  following: 

"Arnold  has  done  for  literature  what  Ruskin 
did  for  art.  By  means  of  his  exquisite  creative 
work  and  his  clear  and  steady  discernment  of 
the  best  that  has  been  thought  and  said  in  the 
world — in  a  word,  by  his  study  of  perfection, 
he  has  enriched  thought  and  quickened  feeling. 
His  intellectual  activity  is  as  varied  and  un- 
ceasing as  his  love  is  strong  and  pure.  His 
nature,  genial,  frank,  and  manly,  is  revealed 


22  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

in  poetry  of  elegance  and  power.  He  teaches 
the  gospel  of  Wordsworth — that  weWed  shade 
in  which  to  grow  ripe,  and  leisure  in  which  to 
grow  wise.  As  a  literary  critic  he  has  no  supe- 
rior in  the  art  of  revealing  beauty,  of  stimu- 
lating enjoyment  of  the  high  and  rare  excel- 
lence in  literature.  His  instinct  for  seizing  the 
spirit  of  the  author  and  embalming  it  in  the 
amber  of  beautiful  phrase,  is  as  unfailing  as 
his  analysis  of  the  means  by  which  that  author 
attained  distinction  in  form  is  clear  and  sound. 
As  a  writer  upon  morals  and  politics,  he  is 
characterized  by  the  spirit  of  l  sweetness  and 
light/  with  a  purpose  to  make  reason  and  the 
will  of  God  prevail.  The  results  of  his  work 
are  exceedingly  great."— Chaucer  to  Arnold. 

COHERENCE.  Coherence  is  the  quality  by  means 
of  which,  in  sentences,  paragraphs,  and  whole  com- 
positions, the  various  parts  are  held  together  in  unity. 
By  means  of  coherence  the  relation  of  each  part  of  a 
composition  to  its  context,  is  made  clear.  It  has  to  do 
with  the  arrangement  of  the  material  within  the  sen- 
tence, the  paragraph,  and  the  whole  composition.  Co- 
herence demands  close  thinking  to  secure  logical  con- 
nection, and  skill  in  evaluating  material  to  secure 
proper  coordination  and  subordination.  Things  closely 
related  in  thought  should  be  kept  together. 

Phrases  similar  in  meaning  or  similar  in  their  relation 
to  the  words  they  modify,  should  be  similar  in  form; 
any  needless  inversions,  shifting  of  subject,  and  changes 
in  voice,  should  be  avoided,  if  coherence  is  to  be  main- 


THE  RHETORICAL  ESSENTIALS  OF  COMPOSITION    23 

tained.  Care  must  be  taken  regarding  the  position  of 
all  modifying  words,  phrases,  or  clauses,  that  their 
connection  with  the  words  they  are  intended  to  modify 
may  be  immediately  evident.  Things  wholly  unlike 
and  unrelated  in  thought  can  no  more  be  made  to 
" stick  together"  than  glass  and  tin  can  be  soldered. 

Coherence  is  aided  by  correct  grammatical  construc- 
tion, by  sufficient  and  concise  connectives,  and  by  fre- 
quent use  of  periodic  sentences.  Long,  loose  sentences 
easily  become  incoherent;  the  very  nature  of  periodic 
sentences  favors  coherence.  Coherence  must  be  the 
constant  guide  in  all  composition  and  paragraph  plan- 
ning. Skill  may  be  acquired  in  securing  this  quality 
by  breaking  up  long  paragraphs  into  separate  sentences 
and  clauses,  and  then  putting  them  together  again 
correctly. 

As  an  example  of  incoherence,  reread  the  paragraph 
from  Mark  Twain.  ,Note  that  the  further  the  writer 
of  the  item  attributed  to  Mr.  Bloke  proceeds,  the 
further  he  gets  from  his  subject,  which  was  evidently 
an  accident  to  Mr.  Schuyler.  So  much  incongruous 
matter,  however,  is  dragged  in  that  we  are  soon  lost 
in  a  maze  of  irrelevant  statements. 

The  quotation  from  Chaucer  to  Arnold,  already  used 
to  illustrate  unity,  serves  equally  well  for  coherence. 
Observe  how  all  the  parts  hang  together,  and  with  in- 
creasing clearness  and  force  show  what  Arnold  did  for 
literature.  Every  word,  phrase,  and  clause  is  related 
to  its  context  in  a  manner  that  is  unmistakable. 

Proportion  and  Emphasis.     To  get  away  from  the 


24  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

dead  level  of  the  commonplace,  emphasis  is  essential 
in  the  finished  product.  Proportion  and  emphasis  are 
best  considered  together,  for  a  properly  proportioned 
sentence,  paragraph,  and  composition  will  also  be  suit- 
ably emphasized.  By  means  of  proportion  and  em- 
phasis the  writer,  or  speaker,  indicates  what  thoughts 
he  desires  to  have  stand  out  conspicuously  because  of 
their  importance. 

Emphasis  is  secured  by  placing  the  thought  to  be 
stressed  in  the  naturally  emphatic  positions — the  be- 
ginning and  the  end.  Of  these,  as  a  rule,  the  end  is 
the  more  emphatic.  The  periodic  sentence  is  naturally 
emphatic,  for  "it  ends  with  words  that  deserve  dis- 
tinction." Emphasis  is  also  secured  by  strong  words, 
by  striking  figures,  by  balanced  sentences,  and  by  con- 
trast. Conciseness  of  diction  and  proper  punctuation 
are  also  essential.  The  loose  sentence,  with  a  weak 
ending,  is  a  hindrance  to  emphasis. 

Proportion  and  emphasis  contribute  to  force. 

A  well-known  passage  in  Burke's  Speech  on  Concilia- 
tion with  America  illustrates  the  method  of  securing  em- 
phasis by  contrast: 

"  Compare  the  two.  This  I  offer  to  give  you 
is  plain  and  simple;  the  other  is  full  of  per- 
plexed and  intricate  mazes.  This  is  mild;  that 
harsh.  This  is  found  by  experience  effectual 
for  its  purpose;  the  other  is  a  new  project. 
This  is  universal;  the  other  calculated  for  cer- 
tain colonies  only.  This  is  immediate  in  its 
conciliatory  operation;  the  other  remote,  con- 
tingent, full  of  hazard.    Mine  is  what  becomes 


THE  RHETORICAL  ESSENTIALS  OF  COMPOSITION    25 

the  dignity  of  a  ruling  people— gratuitous,  un- 
conditional, and  not  held  out  as  a  matter  of 
bargain  and  sale.  I  have  done  my  duty  in 
proposing  it  to  you." 

This  chapter  is  vitally  connected  with  the  preceding 
one  on  Getting  Ready  to  Write,  in  which  we  considered 
the  gathering  of  the  raw  material  from  which  the 
finished  product  is  made.  Here  we  learn  the  essential 
principles  of  rhetoric,  according  to  which  the  raw  mate- 
rial must  be  further  tested  as  to  its  fitness  for  the 
desired  end,  and  as  to  the  manner  in  which  it  must  be 
arranged.  We  have  seen  that  interest  must  be  secured 
through  clearness,  force,  and  elegance,  which  depend 
upon  unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis.  At  this  stage  of 
the  process  of  composition,  it  is  frequently  necessary 
to  modify  the  original  provisional  plan  for  the  form 
and  size  of  the  finished  product,  and  to  increase  or 
diminish  the  amount  of  actually  suitable  material.  In 
perfecting  the  final  plan  and  in  shaping  the  material 
according  to  it,  careful  thought  is  essential.  The  mate- 
rial must  be  worked  over;  some  must  be  reduced  in 
bulk;  some  must  be  enlarged;  some  must  be  condensed 
into  small  space,  or  be  expressed  with  extreme  con- 
ciseness; some  must  be  developed,  or  expressed  with 
full  detail,  that  the  finished  product  may  be  properly 
proportioned.  To  fail  here  is  to  fail  utterly;  to  succeed 
here  insures  final  success. 

The  Qualities  of  the  Finished  Product.  Clearness. 
Clearness  is  that  quality  of  expression  which  enables 
the  reader  or  the  listener  to  grasp,  at  once,  the  exact 


26  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

meaning  of  the  writer  or  the  speaker.  Clearness  of  ex- 
pression depends  upon  clearness  of  thinking.  Unity 
and  coherence  go  far  toward  securing  it.  It  demands 
the  absence  of  its  three  chief  enemies — vagueness,  am- 
biguity, and  obscurity.  It  requires  an  accurate  use  of 
words,  words  of  undoubted  denotation,  words  that  are 
precise,  concrete,  specific,  and  strong.  It  demands  a 
mastery  of  sentence-structure,  especially  of  the  com- 
plex sentences,  so  that  every  subordinate  clause  may 
be  comprehended  at  a  glance.  It  allows  no  unneces- 
sary words,  no  meaningless  phrases,  no  misplaced 
clauses.  It  demands  ample  and  correct  punctuation. 
Clearness  is  a  purely  intellectual  quality.  It  charac- 
terizes our  expression  when  we  know  exactly  what  we 
want  to  say  and  then  say  it  according  to  the  principles 
of  rhetoric  already  explained  and  illustrated. 

For  an  example  of  a  lack  of  unity  through  the  viola- 
tion of  the  principles  of  unity  and  of  coherence,  read 
again  the  quotation  from  Little  Dorrit  (page  18). 

The  following  from  Woodrow  Wilson's  What  We  Are 
Fighting  For,  illustrates  perfect  clearness : 

"The  position  of  America  in  this  war  is  so 
clearly  avowed  that  no  man  can  be  excused 
for  mistaking  it.  She  seeks  no  material  profit 
or  aggrandizement  of  any  kind.  She  is  fighting 
for  no  advantage  or  selfish  object  of  her  own, 
but  for  the  liberation  of  peoples  everywhere 
from  the  aggressions  of  autocratic  force.  The 
niling  classes  in  Germany  have  begun  of  late 
to  profess  a  like  liberality  and  justice  of  pur- 
pose, but  only  to  preserve  the  power  they  have 


THE  RHETORICAL  ESSENTIALS  OF  COMPOSITION    27 

set  up  to  Germany  and  the  selfish  advantages 
which  they  have  wrongly  gained  for  them- 
selves and  their  private  projects  of  power  all 
the  way  from  Berlin  to  Bagdad  and  beyond. 
Government  after  government  has,  by  their 
influence,  without  open  conquest  of  its  terri- 
tory, been  linked  together  in  a  net  of  intrigue 
directed  against  nothing  less  than  the  peace 
and  liberty  of  the  world.  The  meshes  of  that 
intrigue  must  be  broken,  but  cannot  be  broken 
unless  wrongs  already  done  are  undone;  and 
adequate  measures  must  be  taken  to  prevent 
it  ever  again  being  re  woven  or  repaired." 

FORCE.  Force  is  the  quality  of  discourse  through 
which  it  arouses  and  holds  attention.  Force  is  an  emo- 
tional quality,  rather  than  an  intellectual  one,  and  hence 
is  the  chief  means  of  securing  interest.  It  depends 
upon  the  mood  of  the  writer  or  speaker,  upon  his  will 
power,  upon  his  suggestiveness,  or  connotation,  in  the 
use  of  words,  upon  his  use  of  striking  figures  of  speech 
— in  a  word,  upon  every  possible  means  whereby  he 
may  appeal  to  the  feelings  of  those  whom  he  addresses, 
even  to  the  extent  of  recapturing,  if  need  be,  the  wan- 
ing interest  of  one  on  the  point  of  relapsing  into  indif- 
ference. To  this  should  be  added  the  fact  that  force 
implies  a  mastery  of  all  the  devices  of  style  so  that  one 
wholly  conceals  his  art  and  compels  his  reader  or  lis- 
tener to  follow  him  under  the  powerful  spell  of  his 
message. 

For  examples  of  force  one  has  only  to  turn  to  those 
parts  of  novels,  short  stories,  dramas,  or  poems,  which 


28  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

have  greatly  interested  him,  which  have  held  him  in 
almost  breathless  suspense.  Such  passages  grip  us  be- 
cause they  possess  the  quality  of  force.  In  general  it 
may  be  said  that  all  passages  depicting  dramatic  situa- 
tions, not  in  dramas  only  but  in  any  form  of  literature, 
are  forceful;  all  that  deeply  arouse  our  feelings  by 
appealing  to  fear,  admiration,  or  any  of  the  qualities 
that  excite  us;  all  that  makes  us  curious  or  hold  us  in 
suspense,  are  of  great  force.  In  Macbeth,  for  instance, 
when  Macbeth  has  gone  into  the  chamber  of  Duncan 
to  carry  out  his  evil  plan,  and  Lady  Macbeth  is  wait- 
ing outside  in  the  hall,  there  is  tremendous  force  in 
her  words  because  they  represent  the  intensity  of  her 
feelings. 

"He's  about  it."  "I  laid  the  daggers  handy. 
He  could  not  miss  them." 

We  are  made  to  share  her  feelings. 

To  take  another  case  of  unusual  force,  recall  the 
closing  scene  of  Dickens'  A  Tale  of  Two  Cities.  Read 
the  last  three  pages.  We  quote  only  a  few  words  dealing 
with  Sydney  Carton's  parting  with  the  little  girl  whom 
he  comforted  on  the  way  to  the  guillotine.    She  says : 

"You  comfort  me  so  much.  I  am  so  ignorant. 
Am  I  to  kiss  you  now?    Is  the  moment  come?  " 

"Yes." 

"She  kisses  his  lips;  he  kisses  hers ;  they  sol- 
emnly bless  each  other.  The  spare  hand  does 
not  tremble  as  he  releases  it;  nothing  less  than 
a  sweet,  bright  constancy  is  in  the  patient 
face.    She  goes  next  before  him — is  gone;  the 


THE  RHETORICAL  ESSENTIALS  OF  COMPOSITION    29 

knitting  women  count  twenty-two." 

"I  am  the  Resurrection  and  the  Life,  saith 
the  Lord :  he  that  believeth  in  me,  though  he 
were  dead,  yet  shall  he  live:  and  whosoever 
liveth  and  believeth  in  me,  shall  never  die." 

"The  murmuring  of  many  voices,  the  up- 
turning of  many  faces,  the  pressing  on  of  many 
footsteps  in  the  outskirts  of  the  crowd,  so  that 
it  swells  forward  in  a  mass,  like  one  great  heave 
of  water,  all  flashes  away.    Twenty-three." 

That  is  of  remarkable  force  because  of  the  subject 
treated,  but  equally  because  of  the  manner  of  treat- 
ment. There  are  no  gruesome  details.  All  is  told  most 
moderately.  There  is  force  in  the  very  moderation. 
And  note  the  connotation  of  the  numbers,  twenty-two, 
twenty-three.  Ordinarily  those  numbers  have  only  the 
simplest  denotation;  here,  because  of  the  significance 
of  what  the  knitting  women  were  counting,  the  mean- 
ing is  inexpressibly  sad. 

In  Browning's  short  poem,  How  They  Brought  the 
Good  News  from  Ghent  to  Aix,  we  have  an  illustration 
of  spell-binding  interest,  because  from  beginning  to 
end,  every  stanza  is  of  greater  force  than  those  before 
it,  and  the  last  stanza  is  the  most  forceful  of  all,  for, 
though  the  destination  has  been  reached  by  one  of  the 
three  messengers  and  the  day  has  been  saved,  the 
exhausted  condition  of  that  one  rider  and  his  horse, 
Roland,  touch  us  profoundly  and  relieve  us  from  the 
tension  of  the  excitement  of  the  breakneck  speed  at 
which  we  have  followed  all  the  way  from  Ghent.  We 
quote  the  last  stanza: 


30  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

"And  all  I  remember  is — friends  flocking  round 
As  I  sat  with  his  head  'twixt  my  knees  on  the  ground; 
And  no  voice  but  was  praising  this  Roland  of  mine, 
As  I  poured  down  his  throat  our  last  measure  of  wine, 
Which  (the  burgesses  voted  by  common  consent) 
Was  no  more  than  his  due  who  brought  good  news  from  Ghent. *'■ 

The  reason  detective  stories,  stories  of  adventure, 
and  "  thrillers, "  have  such  power  to  get  and  hold  atten- 
tion that  one  cannot  put  them  down  until  finished,  is 
because  of  the  constant  use,  and  often  over-use,  of  the 
quality  of  force  to  stimulate  the  reader's  curiosity  and 
to  lead  him  from  one  position  of  suspense  to  another. 
The  bad  effect  of  cheap  melodramas  and  the  worst 
kind  of  "thrillers/'  is  due  to  the  overcrowding  of  too 
forceful  incidents.  The  danger  lurking  in  such  litera- 
ture, if  it  may  for  the  sake  of  argument  be  called  litera- 
ture, lies  in  the  fact  that  much  reading  of  it  dulls  one's 
sensibilities  so  that  he  fails  to  recognize  the  higher  kinds 
of  force  which  add  interest  and  give  character  to  the 
greatest  literature,  such  as  the  following  lines  from 
Browning's  Easter  Morn: 

"And  so  I  live,  you  see, 
Go  through  the  world,  try,  prove,  reject, 
Prefer,  still  struggling  to  effect 
My  warfare;    happy  that  I  can 
Be  crossed  and  thwarted  as  a  man, 
Not  left  in  God's  contempt  apart, 
With  ghastly  smooth  life,  dead  at  heart, 
Tame  in  earth's  paddock  as  her  prize. 
Thank  God,  she  still  each  method  tries 
To  catch  me,  who  may  yet  escape, 
She  knows, — the  fiend  in  angel's  shape! 
Thank  God.     No  paradise  stands  barred 
To  entry,  and  I  find  it  hard 
To  be  a  Christian,  as  I  said." 


THE  RHETORICAL  ESSENTIALS  OF  COMPOSITION    31 

Here,  again,  we  have  great  force.  How  has  Brown- 
ing secured  attention  and  aroused  interest?  What  ele- 
ment of  force  is  in  the  italicized  words? 

In  the  following  excerpt  from  The  Merchant  of  Venice 
we  find  an  unusual  example  of  force.  Tubal,  perhaps 
unwittingly,  throws  Shylock  first  into  one  kind  of  vio- 
lent emotion,  then  into  another;  then  he  repeats  the 
process.  First  Shylock  bitterly  laments  the  loss  of  his 
money  and  of  his  jewels,  so  that  he  feels  that  he  has  to 
suffer  the  whole  of  the  curse  upon  his  nation;  then, 
when  he  learns  of  the  reported  loss  of  Antonio's  argosy, 
he  is  beside  himself  with  fiendish  joy.  Note  the  sudden 
change  of  emotional  reaction: 

"Shy.  How  now,  Tubal!  what  news  from  Genoa?  hast  thou 
found  my  daughter? 

Tub.  I  often  came  where  I  did  hear  of  her,  but  cannot  find 
her. 

Shy.  Why,  there,  there,  there,  there!  A  diamond  gone,  cost 
me  two  thousand  ducats  in  Frankfort!  The  curse  never  fell  upon 
our  nation  till  now.  I  never  felt  it  till  now.  Two  thousand 
ducats  in  that;  and  other  precious,  precious  jewels.  I  would 
that  my  daughter  were  dead  at  my  foot,  and  the  jewels  in  her  ear! 
Would  she  were  hearsed  at  my  foot,  and  the  ducats  in  her  coffin! 
No  news  of  them?  Why  so? — and  I  know  not  what's  spent  in 
the  search.  Why,  thou  loss  upon  loss!  the  thief  gone  with  so 
much,  and  so  much  to  find  the  thief;  and  no  satisfaction,  no  revenge, 
nor  no  ill  luck  stirring  but  what  lights  upon  my  shoulders;  no 
sighs  but  of  my  breathing,  no  tears  but  of  my  shedding. 

Tub.  Yes,  other  men  have  ill  luck  too.  Antonio,  as  I  heard  in 
Genoa, — 

Shy.  What,  what,  what?     Ill  luck,  ill  luck? 

Tub.  Hath  an  argosy  cast  away,  coming  from  Tripolis. 

Shy.  I  thank  God,  I  thank  God!     Is  it  true,  is  it  true? 

Tub.  I  spoke  with  some  of  the  sailors  that  escaped  the  wreck. 

Shy.  I  thank  thee,  good  Tubal;  good  news,  good  news!  Ha,  ha! 
Here  in  Genoa? 


32  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

Tub.  Your  daughter  spent  in  Genoa,  as  I  heard,  in  one  night 
fourscore  ducats. 

Shy.  Thou  stick'st  a  dagger  in  me.  I  shall  never  see  my  gold 
again.     Fourscore  ducats  at  a  sitting!     Fourscore  ducats! 

Tub.  There  came  divers  of  Antonio's  creditors  in  my  company 
to  Venice,  that  swear  that  he  cannot  choose  but  break. 

Shy.  I  am  very  glad  of  it.  I'll  plague  him;  I'll  torture  him. 
I'm  glad  of  it. 

Tub.  One  of  them  showed  me  a  ring  that  he  had  of  your  daughter 
for  a  monkey. 

Shy.  Out  upon  her!  Thou  torturest  me,  Tubal.  It  was  my 
turquoise;  I  had  it  from  Leah  when  I  was  a  bachelor.  I  would 
not  have  given  it  for  a  wilderness  of  monkeys. 

Tub.  But  Antonio  is  certainly  undone. 

Shy.  Nay,  that's  true,  that's  very  true.  Go,  Tubal,  fee  me  an 
officer;  bespeak  him  a  fortnight  before.  I  will  have  the  heart  of 
him,  if  he  forfeit;  for,  were  he  out  of  Venice,  I  can  make  what 
merchandise  I  will.  Go,  go,  Tubal,  and  meet  me  at  our  synagogue; 
go,  good  Tubal;  at  our  synagogue,  Tubal." 

Interest  As  a  Result  of  Force.  We  have  already 
spoken  of  force  as  the  rhetorical  quality  of  the  finished 
product  which  reaches  the  emotions  and  produces  in- 
terest. Inasmuch  as  interest  is  essential  for  effective- 
ness in  any  form  of  discourse,  a  further  discussion  of 
it  is  to  the  point.  The  first  aim  of  every  writer  or 
speaker  should  be  to  interest  those  addressed.  Without 
interest,  composition  is  useless.  Interest  is  a  sympa- 
thetic arousing  of  the  emotions  of  one's  readers  or 
hearers.  It  is  the  first  step  toward  engaging  their  wills 
in  attention.  Whether  in  writing  a  letter  of  application 
for  a  position,  in  telling  a  story,  in  painting  a  word  pic- 
ture, in  explaining  a  process,  or  in  arguing  to  prove  a 
proposition,  interest  must  be  immediately  aroused. 

To  aid  in  securing  interest:  never  apologize,  never 
explain  needlessly,  never  indulge  in  long  introductions. 


THE  RHETORICAL  ESSENTIALS  OF  COMPOSITION    33 

Avoid  the  trite,  the  dull,  the  hackneyed,  the  common- 
place. Put  yourself  in  the  place  of  those  you  are  about 
to  address.  Ask  yourself  how  even  a  dull  subject 
might  be  made  interesting  to  you;  then  address  others 
as  you  would  be  addressed.  Feel  what  you  are  to  say 
so  that  your  own  interest  will  fire  you  with  such  ear- 
nestness that  others  cannot  but  be  influenced  by  the 
very  contagion  of  your  emotions  and  by  your  expres- 
sion of  them.  Be  alive  to  your  subject  and  your  mes- 
sage will  be  a  living  one  for  others. 

In  The  Gentle  Reader,  by  Dr.  Samuel  McChord 
Crothers,  the  chapter  on  The  Honorable  Points  of 
Ignorance  begins,  "I  happen  to  live  in  a  community 
where  there  is  a  deeply  rooted  prejudice  in  favor  of 
intelligence,  with  many  facilities  for  its  advancement." 
By  being  striking,  original,  with  a  touch  of  humor,  that 
single  sentence  arouses  interest.  Whoever  reads  it  will 
want  to  read  more.  In  the  same  volume,  the  essay  on 
Intimate  Knowledge  and  Delight  opens  with  this  striking 
periodic  sentence,  "In  the  affairs  of  the  mind  we  are 
all  ' Indian  givers.'"  Again  we  are  interested.  The 
author  has  caught  our  attention,  aroused  our  curiosity, 
and  given  a  challenge  which  few  would  hesitate  to 
accept.  We  may  not  be  sure  as  to  the  meaning  of 
"Indian  givers";  at  any  rate  we  want  to  know  how 
the  author  develops  his  thought.    We  read  on. 

Charles  Lamb  begins  A  Chapter  on  Ears  in  this  way : 
"I  have  no  ear."  That  sentence  does  not  tell  us  much, 
or  it  tells  too  much.  It  is  misleading,  as  it  was  meant 
to  be.    For  that  reason  we  feel  inclined  to  read  on  for 


34  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

further  information.  The  same  author  begins  his  A 
Quaker's  Meeting  with  this  long  sentence,  excellent  for 
its  periodicity  and  climactic  effect: 

"  Reader  wouldst  thou  know  what  true  peace 
and  quiet  mean;  wouldst  thou  find  a  refuge 
from  the  noise  and  clamors  of  the  multitude; 
wouldst  thou  enjoy  at  once  solitude  and  so- 
ciety; wouldst  thou  possess  the  depth  of  thy 
own  spirit  in  stillness,  without  being  shut  out 
from  the  consolatory  faces  of  thy  species; 
wouldst  thou  be  alone  and  yet  accompanied; 
solitary,  yet  desolate;  singular,  yet  not  with- 
out some  to  keep  thee  in  countenance ;  a  unit 
in  aggregate;  a  simple  in  composite; — come 
with  me  to  a  Quaker's  meeting." 

The  suspense  produced  by  the  periodic  sentence  is,  of 
itself,  an  element  of  force.  But  aside  from  this  the  au- 
thor has  stimulated  a  series  of  emotions  which  appeal 
to  all.    He  has  aroused  interest. 

The  successful  writer  and  speaker  must  not  only 
secure  interest;  he  must  hold  it.  If  it  lags  for  an  in- 
stant it  may  be  next  to  impossible  to  recapture  it. 
While  it  may  not  be  always  possible  to  keep  interest 
at  the  high  point  attained  by  a  striking  opening  sen- 
tence, it  may  be  kept  near  that  point.  If  what  follows 
the  opening  is  a  logical  and  illuminating  development 
of  the  idea  suggested  in  the  beginning,  interest  will 
naturally  continue.  Remember  to  impart  all  informa- 
tion vitally,  that  you  are  to  produce  a  realizing  sense  of 
the  truth  and  the  importance  of  what  you  are  saying. 
Choose  vivid,  exact,  concrete  words.     Remembering 


THE  RHETORICAL  ESSENTIALS  OF  COMPOSITION    35 

that  every  unnecessary  word  is  like  a  nonconducting 
material  which  weakens  the  current  of  the  live  wire  of 
your  essential  message,  make  every  word  count.  If 
you  can  illustrate,  do  so,  but  avoid  trite  examples. 
Use  apt,  striking,  forceful  ones.  Never  be  guilty  of 
dragging  in  an  illustration  for  its  own  sake.  It  not 
only  makes  you  violate  the  principle  of  unity,  it  makes 
you  ridiculous.  Do  not  be  too  detailed  in  giving  in- 
formation that  is  simple  and  easily  comprehended; 
suggest.  On  the  other  hand,  do  not  take  too  much  for 
granted  in  imparting  what  is  new  or  difficult.  Be  as 
complete  as  the  quality  of  clearness  demands,  for  clear- 
ness is  the  first  step  toward  force,  as  force  is  the  means 
of  securing  interest.  If  you  are  handling  material  that 
is  counted  dull  and  dry  by  many,  remember  that  that 
only  lays  before  you  the  challenge  to  study  it  and  your 
prospective  readers  or  auditors,  until  you  can  make  it 
interesting  with  a  compelling  force. 

If  conviction  is  sought,  remember  that  it  is  more 
than  imparting  information,  that  it  includes  reaching 
the  reader's  or  listener's  will  and  presenting  it  with  a 
motive  strong  enough  to  move  it  to  action.  Never  de- 
ceive yourself  by  thinking  that  mere  statements  are 
legitimate  arguments.  Guard  your  weak  points;  select 
irrefutable  proofs,  and  state  them  forcefully.  Move 
logically  toward  your  conclusion;  when  you  reach  it 
state  it  with  conviction,  then  stop. 

Where  the  aim  is  to  please,  remember  that  sustained 
interest  is  a  necessary  element  of  pleasure.  The  desire 
to  please  is  not  only  legitimate,  but  essential  in  dealing 


36  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

with  weighty  subjects.  Use  vivid,  idiomatic  English, 
and  words  that  are  euphonious  and  picturesque.  Ob- 
serve the  law  of  "the  fitness  of  things. " 

Elegance.  This  elusive  quality  is  often  called 
" beauty,"  but  inasmuch  as  the  word  elegance  is  more 
inclusive,  more  suggestive,  we  prefer  it.  If  it  seems  too 
difficult  at  first  to  produce  this  quality  of  rhetoric,  we 
can  at  least  learn  to  appreciate  it  in  others  and  study 
to  avoid  whatever  interferes  with  it :  we  can  steer  clear 
of  ugliness.  Elegance  is  not  to  be  looked  upon  as  a 
distinct  quality,  separate  from  clearness  and  force,  but 
rather  as  a  natural  result  of  the  presence  of  other  quali- 
ties at  their  best.  Elegance  is  that  quality  which  is 
discovered  and  appreciated  by  good  taste.  It  is  partly 
inherent  in  the  subject-matter,  partly  dependent  upon 
form.  It  is  farthest  removed  from  the  commonplace; 
it  approaches  the  sublime.  It  adds  to  expression  that 
undefinable  charm  which  can  be  felt  with  increasing 
pleasure,  as  one's  aesthetic  sensibilities  are  developed. 
Elegance  is  secured  by  perfect  adaptation  of  material 
and  form  to  the  purpose  of  the  writer.  It  comes  more 
easily  when  the  definite  object  is  to  please. 

Diction  is  an  essential  element  in  securing  elegance. 
"A  word  fitly  spoken  is  like  apples  of  gold  in  pitchers 
of  silver."  Propriety  is  the  ruling  principle.  It  de- 
mands "the  right  word  in  the  right  place";  the  right 
word  must  be  exact,  and  often  figurative — always 
euphonic.  As  Aristotle  puts  it :  "Beauty  in  words  con- 
sists in  the  meaning  conveyed,  in  the  image  they  pre- 
sent, and  in  the  sound." 


THE  RHETORICAL  ESSENTIALS  OF  COMPOSITION    37 

As  to  sentences,  the  short  and  the  balanced  forms 
are  most  conducive  to  elegance.  Let  the  union  between 
thought  and  emotion  and  their  expression  be  vital  and 
agreeably  expressed. 

To  appreciate  elegance  read  those  prose  writers  who 
have  excelled  in  producing  it:  Ruskin,  Irving,  Haw- 
thorne, George  William  Curtis,  Henry  van  Dyke,  David 
Grayson.  Above  all,  read  the  best  poetry  from  Shake- 
speare and  Milton  to  Alfred  Noyes.  As  an  example  of 
elegance  the  following  is  suggestive: 

"This  hapless  quartet  in  misery,  surpassing 
anything  else  in  fiction  or  in  poetry,  have  lost 
faith  in  man  and  in  deity;  only  the  storm  ac- 
cords with  their  inward  anguish.  Lost  to  the 
world  and  to  themselves  they  have  found 
kindness  in  the  biting  wind  and  comfort  in 
the  driving  rain.  Nothing  more  is  needed  to 
deduce  the  fall  of  man  from  his  original  estate 
than  this  miserere  of  despair.  How  many  hap- 
less vagrants  since  have  welcomed  the  play  of 
the  elements  after  man's  ingratitude!  It  is 
the  very  crown  of  the  dramatist's  art  that  he 
so  pierces  to  the  core  of  human  neglect,  and 
that,  with  the  increasing  sum  of  sorrow,  he 
compels  the  heavens  to  weep  at  man's  stony- 
hearted attitude." 
— King  Lear,  in  Literary  Clinic  Papers:  F.  Hyatt  Smith 

Alfred  Noyes  abounds  in  passages  suitable  for  ex- 
amples of  elegance.    We  give  but  one: 

"There  is  a  song  of  England  that  thrills  the  beating  blood 
With  burning  cries  and  yearning 


38  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

Tides  of  hidden  aspiration  hardly  known  or  understood; 

Aspirations  of  the  creature 

Tow'rds  the  unity  of  Nature; 
Sudden  chivalries  revealing  whence  the  longing  is  renewed 
In  the  men  that  live  for  England,  live  and  love  and  die  for  England : 

By  the  light  of  their  desire 

They  shall  blindly  blunder  higher, 
To  a  wider,  grander  Kingdom  and  a  deeper,  nobler  Good." 
— A  Song  of  England:  Alfred  Noyes 

The  Personal  Touch.  Now  that  we  have  seen  what 
the  three  qualities  of  the  finished  product  are  and  have 
carefully  examined  the  three  principles  upon  which 
they  depend,  before  we  proceed  to  a  consideration  of 
the  final  testing  of  our  material  we  pause  to  point  out 
an  often  overlooked  essential  of  successful  writing — the 
personal  touch.  The  makers  of  literature  have,  without 
exception,  been  upon  most  intimate  terms  with  their 
work  and  so  have  made  it  vital.  As  long  as  one  looks 
upon  any  writing  as  a  mere  task  and  as  drudgery,  he 
will  never  write  well.  He  cannot.  When,  however, 
one  actually  lives  with  his  subject — or  better  still,  lives 
his  subject — he  almost  inevitably  writes  well.  What 
he  produces  shows  his  sincerity,  his  realizing  sense,  and 
his  mastery  of  his  subject.  Of  him  it  may  be  said,  as 
the  late  Joyce  Kilmer  said  of  another,  "He  did  not  win 
success;  he  is  success."  This  living,  personal  touch, 
more  than  anything  else,  gives  that  charm  which  we 
call  style  to  one's  writing.  It  is  worth  while  even  in  the 
most  prosaic  attempts;  it  is  absolutely  necessary  in 
our  endeavors  to  rise  above  mediocrity.1 

Milton  said  that  if  one  would  be  a  real  poet  his  life 

1  See  quotation  from  Newman,  page  100. 


THE  RHETORICAL  ESSENTIALS  OF  COMPOSITION    39 

should  be  a  poem.  To  the  most  casual  reader  it  is 
evident  that  Shakespeare  lived  in  the  characters  he 
created,  and  lived  with  them  in  all  their  scenes  of 
comedy  and  of  tragedy.  Dickens  so  lost  himself  in 
his  books,  while  writing  them,  that  for  weeks  he  seemed 
another  than  himself,  and  so  his  books  have  more  than 
the  "  touch  of  nature  which  makes  the  whole  world 
kin."  Hawthorne  entered  so  into  the  characters  and 
scenes  of  The  Scarlet  Letter,  while  writing  it,  that  his 
family  scarcely  knew  him  and  he  had  to  be  urged  to 
eat  and  sleep.  The  result  was  his  masterpiece.  To 
give  but  one  more  illustration,  take  the  case  of  Brown- 
ing and  The  Ring  and  the  Book.  Referring  to  the  old 
yellow  book  which  he  picked  up  from  a  junk  stall  in 
Florence,  he  says: 

"Here  it  is,  this  I  toss  and  take  again; 
Small  quarto-size,  part  print,  part  manuscript: 
A  book  in  shape  but,  really,  pure  crude  fact 
Secreted  from  man's  life  when  hearts  beat  hard, 
And  brains,  high-blooded,  ticked  two  centuries  since." 

Later  he  says : 

"I  had  mastered  the  contents,  knew  the  whole  truth 
Gathered  together,  bound  up  in  this  book. 

This  is  the  bookfull;   thus  far  take  the  truth, 
The  untempered  gold,  the  fact  untampered  with, 
The  mere  ring  metal  ere  the  ring  was  made. 

— thence  bit  by  bit  I  dug 
The  lingot  truth,  that  memorable  day, 
Assayed  and  knew  my  piecemeal  gain  was  gold, — 
Yes;    but  from  something  else  surpassing  that, 


40  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

Something  of  mine  which,  mixed  up  with  the  mass, 
Made  it  bear  hammer  and  be  firm  to  file. 
Fancy  with  fact  is  just  one  fact  the  more. 

I  fused  my  live  soul  and  that  inert  stuff." 

Is  it  strange  that  Browning  could  say  of  The  Ring  and 
the  Book  that  it  was  "my  four  years'  intimate "  ? 

There  is  no  better  illustration  in  the  whole  realm  of 
literature  to  show  the  perfect  working  of  the  concep- 
tion of  composition  which  we  are  seeking  to  explain, 
than  this  work  of  Browning.  The  old  yellow  book 
which  he  called  "pure  crude  fact,"  was  the  raw  material 
from  which  he  made  the  finished  product,  the  poem 
which  is,  perhaps,  the  greatest  single  poem  of  modern 
times.  He  tells  us  how  he  mingled  fact  and  fancy, 
which  is  an  important  part  of  the  process  of  working 
over  the  material  and  shaping  it  for  his  purpose.  But 
what  we  want  especially  to  emphasize  is,  that  he  has 
told  us: 

"I  fused  my  live  soul  and  that  inert  stuff." 

The  book  is  not  only  by  Browning;  it  is  Browning. 
It  is  Browning  because  he  put  himself  into  it,  as  he 
now  lives  through  it. 

Our  own  poet,  Bryant,  has  touched  upon  the  same 
subject  in  a  little  poem  called  The  Poet.  He  shows 
that  the  personal  element  is  absolutely  essential  if  one 
would  move  his  readers,  or  as  we  put  it,  "if  he  would 
give  the  quality  of  force  to  his  finished  product." 

We  quote  the  poem,  italicizing  some  of  the  words  for 
emphasis : 


THE  RHETORICAL  ESSENTIALS  OF  COMPOSITION    41 
"THE  POET 

1 
"Thou  who  wouldst  wear  the  name 

Of  poet  'mid  thy  brethren  of  mankind, 
And  clothe  in  words  of  flame 

Thoughts  that  shall  live  within  the  general  mind! 
Dream  not  the  framing  of  a  deathless  lay 
The  pastime  of  a  drowsy  summer  day. 


"But  gather  all  thy  powers, 

And  wreak  them  on  the  verse  that  thou  dost  weave, 
And  in  thy  lonely  hours, 

At  silent  morning  or  at  wakeful  eve, 
While  the  warm  current  tingles  through  thy  veins 
Set  forth  the  burning  words  in  fluent  strains. 

3 

"No  smooth  array  of  phrase 

Artfully  sought  and  ordered  though  it  be, 
Which  the  cold  rhymer  lays 

Upon  his  page  with  languid  industry, 
Can  wake  the  listless  pulse  to  livelier  speed, 
Or  fill  with  sudden  tears  the  eyes  that  read. 

4 

"The  secret  wouldst  thou  know 

To  touch  the  heart  or  fire  the  blood  at  will? 
Let  thine  own  eyes  overflow; 

Let  thy  lips  quiver  with  the  passionate  thrill; 
Seize  the  great  thought,  ere  yet  its  power  be  past, 
And  bind,  in  words,  the  fleet  emotion  fast. 

5 

"Then,  should  thy  verse  appear 

Halting  and  harsh,  and  all  unaptly  wrought, 
Touch  the  crude  line  with  fear, 
Save  in  the  moment  of  impassioned  thought; 
Then  summon  back  the  original  glow,  and  mend 
The  strain  with  rapture  that  with  fire  was  penned. 


42  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

6 
"Yet  let  no  empty  gust 

Of  passion  find  an  utterance  in  thy  lay, 
A  blast  that  whirls  the  dust 

Along  the  howling  street  and  dies  away; 
But  feelings  of  calm  power  and  mighty  sweep, 
Like  currents  journeying  through  the  windless  deep. 

7 
"Seek'st  thou,  in  living  lays, 

To  limn  the  beauty  of  the  earth  and  sky? 
Before  thine  inner  gaze 

Let  all  that  beauty  in  clear  vision  lie; 
Look  on  it  with  exceeding  love,  and  write 
The  words  inspired  by  wonder  and  delight. 

8 

"Of  tempests  wouldst  thou  sing, 

Or  tell  of  battles — make  thyself  a  part 
Of  the  great  tumult;  cling 

To  the  tossed  wreck  with  terror  in  thy  heart; 
Scale,  with  the  assaulting  host,  the  rampart's  height. 
And  strike  and  struggle  in  the  thickest  fight. 

9 
"So  shalt  thou  frame  a  lay 

That  haply  may  endure  from  age  to  age, 
And  they  who  read  shall  say: 

1  What  witchery  hangs  upon  this  poet's  page! 
What  art  is  his  the  written  spells  to  find 
That  sway  from  mood  to  mood  the  willing  mind!'" 

In  a  word,  Bryant's  contention  is  that  if  one  would 
write  effectively,  "clothe  in  words  of  flame  thoughts 
that  shall  live,"  the  writing  should  not  be  looked  upon 
as  "the  pastime  of  a  drowsy  summer  day,"  for  it  is  a 
task  requiring  all  our  powers.  Nor  will  mere  industry 
suffice,  it  is  not  enough  to  appeal  to  the  intellect;  the 
heart  must   be  touched,   and  to  do  that  the  writer 


THE  RHETORICAL  ESSENTIALS  OF  COMPOSITION    43 

must  fully  feel  his  subject,  " seize  the  great  thought, 
ere  yet  its  power  be  past,  and  bind,  in  words,  the  fleet 
emotion  fast."  The  kind  of  emotion,  too,  that  is  to  be 
recorded,  must  be  selected  with  care,  and,  at  the  time 
of  writing  the  vision  of  the  design  sought  must  be 
kept  before  us  as  we  live  over  the  scene.  And  finally, 
we  must  "summon  back  the  original  glow"  as  we  revise 
our  work. 

Study  the  poem  carefully;  it  will  help  you  to  give 
the  personal  touch  to  your  work  and,  hence,  to  express 
yourselves  better. 

If  it  be  objected  that  it  is  all  right  to  speak  about  the 
poets  feeling  their  subjects  and  the  novelists  living  over 
their  scenes,  but  how  about  those  who  handle  the 
dull,  dry  subjects?  How  about  the  themes  we  have 
to  write  in  the  high  school  or  college? 

The  answer  is  that  all  who  have  attained  real  success 
in  any  line  of  writing  have  done  just  what  we  have 
seen  to  be  true  concerning  Browning,  Dickens,  and 
Hawthorne.  Charles  Darwin,  to  mention  but  one  of 
the  great  scientists,  was  in  as  intimate  touch  with  his 
work  as  Browning  was,  and  the  results  show  it.  The 
same  is  true  of  historians,  essayists,  journalists,  and  all 
other  kinds  of  writers.  It  is  true  that  it  takes  more 
time  and  effort  to  get  upon  intimate  terms  with  some 
kinds  of  subjects  than  others,  but  that  should  not 
deter  one  from  attempting  it.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
secret  of  most  people's  lack  of  interest  in  their  daily 
tasks — and  we  include  high  school  and  college  pupils 
— is  their  failure  to  understand  the  joy  of  work  as  the 


44  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

only  adequate  means  of  living  and  expressing  oneself. 
They  look  upon  it  as  a  curse,  not  as  a  blessing;  some- 
thing to  be  belittled,  scorned,  and  shunned,  instead  of 
something  to  be  magnified,  loved,  and  sought.  Right 
here  in  the  English  work  is  a  good  opportunity  to  learn 
that  cheap  cynicism  about  work  is  not  an  evidence  of 
superior  intelligence  and  of  good  taste,  but  of  quite 
the  opposite  qualities.  Nothing  is  more  important  to 
learn  than  to  get  the  right  attitude  toward  one's  work 
and  in  composition  writing  it  is  absolutely  essential. 
The  following  stanza  from  a  remarkable  poem  tells  it 
all,  and  with  rare  distinction  and  charm: 

"Work! 
Thank  God  for  the  might  of  it, 
The  ardor,  the  urge,  the  delight  of  it — 
Work  that  springs  from  the  heart's  desire, 
Setting  the  brain  and  the  soul  on  fire — 
Oh,  what  is  so  good  as  the  heat  of  it, 
And  what  is  so  glad  as  the  beat  of  it, 
And  what  is  so  kind  as  the  stern  command, 
Challenging  brain  and  heart  and  hand?" 
— Work:  A  Song  of  Triumph :  Angela  Morgan 

Testing  the  Work  According  to  the  Principles.  The 
reason  so  many  make  a  failure  of  composition  work 
and  come  to  the  conclusion  that  they  never  can  suc- 
ceed and  that  it  is  not  worth  while  anyway,  is  that 
they  persist  in  believing  that  a  composition  is  some- 
thing to  be  hastily  dashed  off,  at  a  single  sitting,  the 
night  before  it  is  due.  We  have  shown  that  composi- 
tion is  just  the  opposite  of  that  sort  of  thing;  that  it 
is  the  process  whereby  the  raw  material  of  thoughts 
and   emotions  is  made   into    the  finished  product  of 


THE  RHETORICAL  ESSENTIALS  OF  COMPOSITION    45 

effective  expression.  The  process  implies  working  ac- 
cording to  fundamental  principles,  according  to  a  def- 
inite design,  to  accomplish  a  predetermined  and  worth- 
while end.  We  have  explained  and  illustrated  the  three 
fundamental  principles — unity,  coherence,  and  empha- 
sis or  proportion.  We  have  done  the  same  with  the 
definite  design  by  showing  how  the  finished  product 
must  possess  the  qualities  of  clearness,  force,  and  ele- 
gance. And  we  have  shown  that  these  qualities  must 
unite  in  so  appealing  to  the  intellect,  the  emotions,  and 
the  aesthetic  qualities  of  the  reader  or  hearer  as  to 
secure  and  hold  his  attention  until  he  is  influenced  by 
what  he  reads  or  hears. 

All  this  comprises  rhetoric  in  the  true  sense.  What 
some  call  rhetoric  is  often  held  cheap  and  looked  upon 
as  even  worthy  of  scorn,  "an  affected  and  exaggerated 
display  in  the  use  of  language."  But  rhetoric  is  noth- 
ing of  the  sort.  To  call  it  "an  affected  and  exaggerated 
display  in  the  use  of  language"  is  to  pervert  it  and  to 
reveal  a  woeful  ignorance.  In  fact  it  is  only  the 
ignorant  and  the  cynics  who  so  designate  it.  This  is 
true  rhetoric:  "The  art  of  perfecting  discourse;  the 
art  of  presenting  thought  in  language  so  as  to  influence 
others."  We  have  shown  that  the  application  of  the 
principles  so  as  to  secure  the  qualities  of  rhetoric,  is 
composition,  the  process  of  making  the  finished  product 
of  effective  expression. 

The  next  step  of  testing  the  work  according  to  the 
principles  is  analogous  to  the  work  of  the  builder.  He 
selects  his  material  according  to  his  design,  always  on 


46  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

the  alert  to  see  that  it  is  just  what  he  wants  and  can 
best  use;  then  he  shapes  it  and  arranges  it  according 
to  his  design,  being  ever  careful  that  the  separate 
parts  are  properly  joined  together.  But  when  he  has 
done  all  this,  he  carefully  tests  it  again  to  discover  any 
possible  errors  in  time  to  correct  them. 

So  with  the  writer  or  speaker.  He  selects  and  eval- 
uates his  material  according  to  the  principle  of  unity 
which  is  closely  related  to  the  quality  of  clearness 
which  must  characterize  the  finished  product.  He  as- 
sembles the  various  parts  of  the  material  and  binds 
them  together  according  to  the  principles  of  coherence 
and  of  proportion,  always  remembering  that  the  sta- 
bility and  attractiveness  of  the  result  demand  constant 
aiming  at  the  qualities  of  force  and  elegance. 

The  threefold  aim  of  being  clear,  forceful,  and  ele- 
gant, it  must  be  remembered,  can  be  attained  only 
when,  by  observing  the  principle  of  unity,  enough  of 
the  right  material  is  used  and  all  that  is  incongruous  is 
eliminated;  when,  by  observing  the  principle  of  co- 
herence, the  proper  material  is  so  arranged  and  put 
together,  within  the  sentence  and  within  the  paragraph, 
that  the  relation  between  the  parts  is  unmistakable; 
when,  by  observing  the  principle  of  emphasis  or  pro- 
portion, the  more  important  parts  of  the  material  are 
placed  where  they  best  catch  the  eye  or  ear,  and  so 
give  the  sense  of  proper  proportion. 

It  will  help  to  comprehend  the  very  heart  of  rhetoric 
if  the  indisputable  relationship  between  the  three  quali- 
ties and  the  three  principles  is  ever  kept  in  mind.    In 


THE  RHETORICAL  ESSENTIALS  OF  COMPOSITION    47 

so  far  as  the  finished  product  is  concerned,  the  qualities — 
clearness,  force,  and  elegance — are  final.  They  com- 
prise the  end  and  the  aim.  The  three  principles — unity, 
coherence,  and  emphasis  or  proportion — constitute  the 
means  through  which  the  end  is  reached.  Keeping  this 
casual  relation  in  mind,  since  it  gives  a  philosophical 
basis  for  the  work  of  composition,  will  greatly  aid  dur- 
ing the  process  of  composition.  It  will  help  do  away 
with  the  feeling  that  these  rhetorical  terms  are  mere 
words;  it  will  help  to  comprehend  them  so  that  they 
may  become  vital. 

At  first  thought  any  subject  that  is  technical  seems 
so  difficult  that  many  shun  it.  But  it  must  be  remem- 
bered all  art  has  its  technical  side;  all  work  is  first 
technical;  even  the  most  ordinary  acts  of  life,  like 
walking,  are  at  first  very  technical.  But  when  the 
technique  is  mastered,  not  only  its  difficulty  but  its 
very  existence  is  forgotten.  The  student,  upon  first 
being  confronted  with  the  technique  of  rhetoric,  may 
naturally  say,  "It  is  a  mass  of  confusing  rules  and 
definitions. "  But  when  he  has  overcome  the  strange- 
ness and  mastered  the  technique,  he  will  wonder  why 
it  ever  bothered  him,  and  he  will  write  and  speak 
rhetorically  without  ever  being  conscious  of  the  laws 
which  once  confused  and  annoyed  him.  When  one 
applies  the  tests  of  rhetoric  to  his  work  while  planning 
to  write,  and  then  tests  it  again  to  see  how  well  he  has 
planned,  he  will  find  the  task  becoming  less  and  less  of 
a  task  and  more  and  more  a  delight,  "  challenging  brain 
and  heart  and  hand";   he  will  gradually  approach  the 


48  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

delightful  stage  where  all  artifice  is  gone  and  true  art 
conceals  art. 

Now,  at  last,  having  secured  and  evaluated  and 
planned  to  arrange  our  material  according  to  the  prin- 
ciples of  rhetoric  to  attain  the  aim  of  rhetoric,  and 
having  thought  and  lived  intimately  with  our  subject 
and  the  material  while  planning  to  write,  so  that  we 
have  actually  been  mastered,  in  a  way,  by  it;  now,  at 
last,  we  are  ready  to  write.  Being  thoroughly  prepared, 
the  act  of  writing,  which  at  first  seemed  impossible 
and  was  impossible  then,  is  comparatively  simple  and 
easy.  Follow  your  design  contained  in  your  revised 
and  tested  plan,  but  do  not  allow  it  to  hamper  you 
unduly.  Write  without  restraint  as  you  are  led  on  by 
your  ideal  of  what  the  finished  product  is  to  be,  keep- 
ing your  reader  in  mind  and  studying  how  best  to 
impress  him  intellectually,  emotionally,  and  aestheti- 
cally. Write  as  rapidly  as  possible  without  careless- 
ness, remembering  that  the  personal  touch,  here  as 
heretofore,  should  keep  you  from  mechanical  formality. 

If  you  are  preparing  a  speech  for  oral  delivery,  try 
out  your  phrases  and  sentences  orally  upon  an  imag- 
inary audience;  in  other  words,  deliver  your  speech 
beforehand  until  you  have  attained  the  desired  oral 
qualities  and  then  report  it  fully  so  as  to  lose  none  of 
its  power. 

The  practice  of  speaking  aloud  the  sentences  you  are 
about  to  write  is  often  found  advantageous  in  any 
kind  of  writing,  without  reference  to  its  being  used 


THE  RHETORICAL  ESSENTIALS  OF  COMPOSITION    49 

orally.  Moreover,  when  one  sounds  his  words  and  sen- 
tences, the  practice  both  aids  him  in  detecting  errors 
of  euphony  and  of  grammar  and  in  overcoming  self- 
consciousness.  Keep  away  from  the  "  Now-I-take-pen- 
in-hand"  idea  of  writing;  think  rather  of  making  the 
expression  of  your  message  as  real,  as  effective,  as  the 
message  itself.  Then  writing  will  become  a  pleasure; 
its  result  a  finished  product  capable  of  interesting  and 
influencing  your  reader. 

Avoid  the  trite,  the  threadbare,  the  commonplace  in 
thought,  in  words,  and  in  fuller  expressions. 

Seek  striking,  original,  and  even  startling  ways  of 
expressing  your  thoughts;  but  avoid  letting  such  aims 
lead  you  into  positions  that  render  you  queer,  eccentric, 
or  ridiculous.  Learn  to  draw  the  line  of  nice  distinc- 
tion between  these  two  classes  of  effects. 

Be  bold.  Be  daring.  Be  yourself.  Be  alive  to  what 
you  say  and  what  you  say  will  be  alive. 

Remember  that  words  are  but  symbols  of  thoughts 
and  emotions  and  that  no  word  is  ever  appropriate 
unless  it  helps  to  make  the  thought  or  the  emotion 
clear,  forceful,  and  attractive. 

Never  dawdle  along  when  you  should  stop.  Stop 
with  interest  at  its  height. 

Revision.  When  the  writing  is  done,  revise.  This 
is  the  time  to  apply  the  final  test  to  the  finished  product. 
For  unity,  look  for  any  incongruous  matter  that  may 
have  crept  in,  for  digressions,  for  needless  parenthetical 
interpolations,  and  for  omissions  of  any  details  essential 
for  unity.    For  coherence,  test  sentences,  paragraphs, 


50  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

and  the  whole  composition,  to  see  that  all  minor  parts 
are  so  placed  as  to  make  the  relations  clear,  that  there 
are  no  unwarranted  changes  in  structure  such  as  are 
detrimental  to  coherence,  and  that  all  connectives  con- 
nect what  they  are  intended  to  unite  instead  of  parts 
that  are  unrelated.  For  emphasis,  test  by  examining 
the  emphatic  positions,  the  beginnings  and  the  ends 
of  the  various  parts  and  of  the  whole,  to  see  that 
what  deserves  distinction  is  so  placed  as  to  catch 
the  eye  immediately,  and  to  see  that  the  proportion 
between  parts  and  the  whole  and  parts  and  parts  is 
right. 

Ordinarily  such  testing  is  sufficient.  When  these 
tests  have  been  rigorously  applied  the  qualities  depend- 
ent upon  them,  clearness,  force,  and  elegance,  will  be 
present. 

Occasionally,  however,  it  is  well  to  test  for  them  by 
looking  for  such  violations  of  clearness  as  ambiguity, 
vagueness,  and  obscurity;  for  such  lack  of  force  as 
results  from  strained,  far-fetched  figures,  mixed  figures, 
and  loose  constructions;  and  for  such  enemies  of  ele- 
gance as  "fine  writing,"  ostentation,  uneuphonious 
words,  slang,  and  other  improprieties. 

The  test  for  diction  is  usually  included  in  that  for 
elegance,  but  a  careful  scrutiny  of  the  words  employed 
with  a  view  to  improvement,  is  always  in  order  and 
never  without  good  results. 

Having  finished  the  testing  process  for  revision,  re- 
write, and  you  have  a  finished  process  of  effective 
expression. 


THE  RHETORICAL  ESSENTIALS  OF  COMPOSITION    51 

Suggestions  for  practice  in  applying  the  rhetorical 
principles,  laid  down  in  this  chapter,  to  material  in 
preparation  for  writing. 

1.  Study  model  paragraphs  found  in  the  various  chapters  and 
at  the  end  of  this  volume  to  find  examples  of  the  rhetorical  qualities. 

2.  Plan,  with  the  aid  of  loose  cards,  for  brief  compositions  upon 
subjects  upon  which  you  have  material  from  observation  or  ex- 
perience. With  the  threefold  aim  of  all  composition  in  mind, 
arrange  your  material  to  secure  unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis, 
bearing  in  mind  that  through  all  of  these  qualities  clearness,  force, 
and  elegance  are  made  possible. 

3.  Write  according  to  the  above  plan. 

4.  Revise  by  applying  the  tests  laid  down  under  the  heading, 
"Revision." 

5.  Rewrite. 

6.  Collect  material  upon  the  subject  "Optimism"  and  then 
plan  for  a  composition  of  three  hundred  words  upon  the  title, 
•"Looking  upon  the  Bright  Side."    Write,  revise,  and  rewrite. 

7.  Collect  material,  organize  it  according  to  a  general  plan  by 
selecting  the  suitable  material  from  the  available  and  with  the  aid 
of  cards  make  your  final  plan  by  applying  the  rhetorical  principles. 
Write,  revise,  and,  if  necessary,  rewrite  brief  compositions  upon 
the  following  titles: 

My  Favorite  Hero  of  Fiction 

A  Place  I  Should  Like  to  Visit 

Why  I  Should  Like  to  Know 

My  Favorite  Study 

A  Page  from  My  Diary 

Misleading  Proverbs 

A  Strange  Superstition 

Remember  that  in  every  case  the  present  purpose  is  the  acquiring 
of  facility  in  applying  to  the  material  the  rhetorical  principles  laid 
down  in  this  chapter  as  means  of  "presenting  thought  in  language 
■so  as  to  influence  others." 


CHAPTER  III 
DICTION 

The  first  and  the  last  requisite  of  good  English  is 
good  diction.  Diction  is  the  proper  use  of  the  words 
most  appropriate  for  the  purpose  of  the  writer  or 
speaker. 

However  proficient  one  may  be  in  grammar,  or  even 
in  rhetoric,  in  a  general  way,  so  long  as  his  diction  is 
defective  he  can  never  approach  quite  to  the  goal  of 
good  English.  The  writer  must  have  at  least  a  fair 
working  vocabulary  before  beginning  to  write;  he  must 
be  able,  upon  his  last  review  of  his  work,  still  further 
to  improve  his  diction.  More  than  any  other  one 
thing,  the  words  a  person  uses  reveal  the  man.  Some 
have  called  words  the  clothing  or  dress  of  our  thoughts, 
and  the  expression  is  suggestive.  Wordsworth's  say- 
ing, however,  comes  nearer  the  truth.  He  says,  "  Words 
are  the  incarnation  of  thoughts."  Words  give  to 
thoughts  the  best  possible  tangible  body;  they  do  more 
if  they  are  the  right  words;  they  give  some  adequate 
expression  of  that  elusive,  intangible  something  which 
we  call  "the  soul"  of  words.  Hence  the  importance  of 
good  diction. 

In  his  foreword  to  The  Ruling  Passion,  Henry  van 
Dyke  says:   "Make  me  respect  my  material  so  that  I 

52 


DICTION  53 

dare  not  slight  my  work.  Help  me  to  deal  very  honestly 
with  words  and  with  people,  because  they  are  both 
alive. "  Since  his  own  works  rank  so  high  he  may  be 
said  to  have  answered  his  own  prayer. 

The  Soul  of  Words  is  the  striking  title  of  a  chapter  of 
Ralcy  Husted  Bell's  book,  The  Changing  Values  of 
English  Speech.  Part  of  a  single  paragraph  from  that 
chapter  gives  the  author's  conception  of  the  value  of 
good  diction: 

"We  know  that  Shakespeare,  consciously 
or  not,  had  to  do  with  the  soul  of  words.  He 
was  easily  the  king  of  metaphor.  The  won- 
drous alchemy  of  his  brain  transformed  the 
dross  to  gold;  it  touched  the  coarest  clay,  and 
lo!  it  was  aglow  with  love.  This  many-sided 
man  toyed  with  words  as  a  god  might  play 
with  the  hearts  of  men,  and  this  godlike  dal- 
liance of  his  never  brutalized  his  words.  He 
breathed  upon  them  and  they  wept.  He  threw 
them  into  careless,  happy  throngs,  where 
rollick-laughter  soothed  the  hurts  of  day  and 
banished  the  ghosts  of  night.  He  peopled  the 
brain  with  beauty;  threw  strange  silhouettes 
of  shadow  over  the  horizon's  edge;  and  far 
above  the  highest  peaks  of  thought  he  sowed 
all  the  heavens  of  the  soul  with  myriad  stars 
of  hope.  He  thought,  and  his  words  were  wise ; 
he  felt,  and  they  thrilled  with  infinite  passion; 
he  looked  out  upon  the  green  fields  of  Eng- 
land, and  in  his  soul  every  blossom  was  mated 
with  a  word,  every  blade  of  grass  and  leaf  and 
brook  and  living  thing  was  tallied  with  the 
teeming  symbols  of  his  brain.     Within  his 


54  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

heart  the  very  stones  have  speech.  Words  to 
him  were  significant,  more  than  lifeless  blocks, 
with  which  to  rear  the  glittering  domes  of 
thought.  He  was  an  architect  who  built  with 
life.  He  gave  to  words  their  weight  and  worth. 
He  never  debased  a  syllable  of  his  tongue, 
never  mutilated  a  word,  never  prostituted  its 
meaning,  never  humiliated  it  into  slavery. 
Every  word,  therefore,  was  a  winged  spirit 
eager  to  do  homage  to  his  genius;  and  through 
all  these  many  years  they  have  served  him  as 
faithfully  as  love  ever  serves  the  heart  of 


Another  has  said: 

"  Words  are  the  red  corpuscles  in  the  blood 
of  language,  and  upon  language  depends  social 
integrity.  See  the  mighty  importance  of 
words !  Is  it  less  than  sacrilegious  to  mistreat 
them?  Words  being  the  red  corpuscles  of  lan- 
guage, it  follows  that  the  smaller  one's  vocabu- 
lary is  the  more  anaemic  will  be  his  brain's 
children.  ...  I  like  the  writer  who  will  occa- 
sionally drive  me  to  the  dictionary." 

Such  is  the  ideal  use  of  words.  What,  however,  do 
we  find?  One  has  only  to  read  Shakespeare,  or  any 
good  writer,  or  to  hear  any  good  speaker,  to  become 
aware  of  the  meagerness  of  his  own  vocabulary.  With- 
out the  precise  word  to  give  it  adequate  expression,  a 
thought  is  soon  lost.  Inasmuch  as  we  think  mostly  in 
words,  no  thought  can  ever  be  other  than  vague  and 
incomplete  until  we  have  adequate  words  to  embody  it. 


DICTION  55 

Reading  is  a  most  humiliating  process  for  the  one 
with  a  small  vocabulary.  Not  only  does  such  a  reader 
fail  to  comprehend  what  he  reads;  he  is  literally  "held 
up"  by  every  unknown  word.  He  cannot  intelligently 
proceed.  He  is  the  slave  of  the  unknown  word.  His 
humiliation  is  complete. 

The  person  with  a  very  limited  vocabulary  is  like  a 
would-be  carpenter  with  only  a  saw  and  a  hammer. 
He  can  do  a  few  things  well;  a  few  more  he  may  be 
able  to  do  badly;  but  most  of  the  great  things  he  ought 
to  accomplish  he  cannot  do  at  all.  He  cannot  build 
anything  worth  while.  What  he  needs  is  a  full  kit  of 
tools. 

So  the  person  with  a  very  limited  vocabulary  must 
overuse  the  few  words  he  has.  Not  only  does  this 
process  reveal  his  weakness  in  expression;  it  also  wears 
out  the  few  words  he  has,  making  them  less  expressive. 
Overused  and  wrongly  used  words,  like  a  saw,  become 
dull.  One  so  impoverished  cannot  express  anything 
well.  At  best  he  will  talk  and  write  only  generalities 
which  are  extravagant  and  false.  He  will,  often  with 
a  sense  of  satisfaction,  resort  to  slang  as  if  it  were  an 
omnibus  capable  of  carrying  all  sorts  of  ideas.  Not 
knowing  the  value  of  words,  he  will  be  unwise  in 
selecting  new  ones  and  ridiculous  in  using  them.  Bar- 
barisms, improprieties,  provincialisms,  and  solecisms, 
will  all  be  welcomed  alike,  so  that  even  though  his 
vocabulary  increases  it  cannot  be  said  to  improve; 
though  he  may  have  more  words  he  has  not  greater 
power  of  expression. 


56  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

Before  we  discuss  the  properties  of  good  diction,  it 
will  be  well  to  point  out  more  fully  the  nature  of  bar- 
barisms, improprieties,  and  solecisms. 

Barbarisms.  Barbarisms  are  words  not  in  the 
English  language.  They  have  been  improperly  derived 
from  foreign  languages  too  hastily  imported,  or  used 
without  being  imported,  and  they  are  wrongly  com- 
pounded or  abbreviated.  Examples  of  the  foregoing 
are  "chic,"  "ad  libitum,"  "disremember,"  "Jap." 

To  use  a  foreign  word  when  there  is  a  perfect  equiva- 
lent in  English  is  pedantic — it  is  an  abnormal  desire  to 
air  one's  knowledge  of  other  languages.  This  fault, 
however,  must  not  be  confused  with  the  use  of  the 
many  words  which  have  been  adopted  into  our  language 
to  supply  a  real  demand,  when  they  express  an  idea 
for  which  there  is  no  equivalent  in  English.  Such  words, 
because  of  the  history  they  embody,  are  better  than 
any  which  might  be  manufactured  to  take  their  place. 
In  fact,  no  "manufactured"  words  could  take  their 
place.  Hence,  with  perfect  propriety  and  good  sense, 
we  have  borrowed  and  adopted  alligator,  cigar,  negro, 
and  indigo  from  the  Spanish;  canto,  sonnet,  opera,  and 
portico  from  the  Italian;  ballast,  boor,  sloop,  and  yacht 
from  the  Dutch;  blonde,  bouquet,  depot,  and  trousseau 
from  the  French;  loafer,  meerschaum,  poodle,  and  zinc 
from  the  German;  acme,  lexicon,  pathos,  and  crisis  from 
the  Greek;  abbe,  cherub,  rabbi,  and  sabbath  from  the 
Hebrew;  canary,  guinea,  oasis,  and  zebra  from  the 
African  dialects;  canoe,  hammock,  potato,  tobacco,  and 
wigwam  from  various  American  Indian  tongues;   alco- 


DICTION  57 

hoi,  chemistry,  coffee,  and  tariff  from  the  Arabic ;  china, 
junk,  silk,  and  tea  from  the  Chinese;  bungalow,  calico, 
jungle,  and  sugar  from  the  Hindu;  bamboo,  gong,  rattan, 
and  sago  from  the  Malay;  awning,  bazaar,  chess,  and 
sash  from  the  Persian;  boomerang,  kangaroo,  taboo,  and 
tattoo  from  the  Polynesian  dialects;  caste,  coconut, 
lasso,  and  molasses  from  the  Portuguese;  czar,  drosky, 
rouble,  and  w&ase  from  the  Russian;  bey,  ottoman,  and 
tulip  from  the  Turkish.  Most  of  these  lists  might  be 
greatly  lengthened,  but  enough  words  have  been  given 
to  show  that  the  English  is  greatly  indebted  to  other 
tongues  for  many  words  which  are  so  Anglicized  that 
many  never  suspect  their  foreign  origin. 

Vulgarisms.  Another  class  of  barbarisms,  or  words 
not  in  the  English  language,  is  vulgarisms.  Though 
not  in  the  language,  in  the  sense  of  reputable  language, 
they  are  altogether  too  much  in  the  language  of  the 
illiterate  and  the  vulgar.  Many  of  them  are  "clipped" 
words,  like  "ad,"  "bike,"  "exam,"  "gents,"  "gym," 
"phone,"  and  "prelim."  Others  are  improper  com- 
pounds, like  "enthuse,"  "unbeknown,"  and  "preven- 
tative." 

Some  slang  should  be  classed  among  vulgarisms,  in- 
asmuch as  it  uses  words  of  its  own  that  are  not  acknowl- 
edged by  good  usage.  In  this  class  are  "hit,"  "chump," 
"biff,"  "snide,"  and  the  like,  together  with  most  of  the 
slang  of  certain  classes,  much  of  whose  talk  is  incom- 
prehensible to  those  outside  their  group — the  slang  of 
the  street  urchin,  sailors'  slang,  thieves'  slang,  college 
slang,  baseball  slang,  etc. 


58  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

Most  slang,  however,  consists  not  of  words  not  in 
the  language,  but  of  proper  words  used  in  slangy  com- 
binations^ with  slangy  accent,  and  in  other  ingenious 
ways  to  give  them  an  unnatural  effect.  Such  usage 
will  be  considered  under  the  heading  " improprieties." 

Newspaper  reporters,  and  some  editors,  are  fre- 
quently "a  law  unto  themselves"  in  the  matter  of  lan- 
guage, and  many  of  their  inventions  are  barbarisms, 
while  some,  it  must  be  confessed,  might  even  be  called 
vulgarisms  and  slang.  Common  among  their  "inven- 
tions" are  nouns  used  as  verbs,  such  as  "to  suspicion," 
"to  culture,"  "to  railroad,"  and  "to  suicide";  and 
verbs  used  as  nouns,  such  as  "a  scoop,"  "an  invite," 
"a  combine,"  and  "a  steal." 

The  ordinary  newspaper  is  not  a  safe  guide  for  those 
who  would  improve  their  English. 

Obsolete  words  were  once  in  good  use;  now  they  are 
barbarisms. 

Newly  coined  words  may  some  day  become  properly 
current;  until  they  do  they  are  only  barbarisms. 

Improprieties.  An  Impropriety  is  a  wrong  use  of 
a  good  word,  one  that  is  actually  in  the  language.  They 
are  right  as  words,  but  are  so  used  as  to  reveal  the 
ignorance  of  the  user,  who  often  employs  them  without 
any  regard  to  their  meaning,  or  because  they  sound 
something  like  what  the  user  remembers  having  heard. 
Improprieties  are  errors  in  both  denotation  and  conno- 
tation. The  celebrated  Mrs.  Malaprop,  as  her  name 
indicates,  indulged  very  freely  in  improprieties,  and 
with  an  air  of  perfect  propriety  could  speak  of  "an 


DICTION  59 

allegory  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile,"  "a  nice  derange- 
ment of  epitaphs."  "Then,  sir,  she  should  have  a  super- 
cilious knowledge  of  accounts,"  and  the  like.  Shake- 
speare's "Dogberry,"  and  Mrs.  "Quigley,"  belong  to 
the  same  class.  But  we  do  not  have  to  go  to  literature 
or  to  distant  ages  to  find  improprieties.  The  pupil  who 
defined  a  tragedy  as  a  "  heartrendering  comedy  not 
fit  to  be  seen,"  and  the  other  who  sought  to  praise  her 
friend's  apparel  by  saying  "she  was  dressed  in  the 
garbage  of  an  angel,"  were  just  as  bad  as  Mrs.  Mala- 
prop.  Such  people  are  either  very  ignorant  or  over 
anxious  to  be  "funny."  Whoever  guesses  at  the  mean- 
ing of  words  and  uses  them  just  because  they  are  "big 
words,"  and  because  they  sound  "scholarly,"  is  guilty 
of  this  common  form  of  indulging  in  improprieties. 

Improprieties  are  as  fatal  to  good  English  as  they 
are  common.  Their  danger  lies  in  the  fact  that  they 
render  precision,  and  hence  clearness,  impossible. 

While  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  intelligent  people 
will  be  guilty  of  confusing  "garb"  with  "garbage," 
''allegory"  with  "alligator,"  and  "arrangement"  with 
"derangement,"  it  is  not  strange  that,  during  the 
process  of  learning,  pupils  should  have  some  difficulty 
with  such  words  as  "affect"  and  "effect,"  "lie"  and 
"lay,"  "learn"  and  "teach,"  "purpose"  and  "pro- 
pose," "proscribe"  and  "prescribe,"  and  many  other 
words  that  seem  to  be  synonymous  but  are  not.  Conse- 
quently we  give  a  list  of  words  often  confused,  that 
their  differences  may  be  noted  and  heeded. 


60 


EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 


ability — capacity 

accept — except 

acceptation — acceptance 

access — accession 

accredit — credit 

acts — action 

address — direct 

adherence — adhesion 

admire — like 

admit — confess 

advance — advancement 

advice— advise 

aggravating — irritating 

ago — since 

alleviate — relieve 

allow — think 

all  ready — already 

allude — elude 

allusion — illusion — delusion 

ally— alley 

almost — most 

alone — only 

alternative — choice 

among — between 

ancestry — posterity 

ancient — antiquated 

anecdote — antidote 

angry— mad 

antagonize — oppose 

antic — antique 

apt— likely 

argue — augur 

as — like 

assay — essay 

assent — consent 

assertion — statement 

average— ordinary 

awfully— very 

badly— much 

balance — remainder 

barn — stable 

bashful— modest 


begin — initiate 
beside — besides 
bore — boor 
bound — determined 
bring — fetch 
calamity — misfortune 
can — may 
casual — causal 
cemetery— seminary 
center — middle 
champion — support 
character — reputation 
childlike— childish 
chose — choose 
click — clique 
cloths — clothes 
commercial — mercantile 
company— guest 
compare — contrast 
compliment — complement 
completion — completeness 
confuse — confound 
conscience — consciousness 
consequence — importance 
construe — construct 
contagious — infectious 
continual — continuous 
converse — reverse 
corporal — corporeal 
counsel — council — consul 
couple — two 
credible — credulous 
criticism — censure 
crowd — company 
cunning — amusing 
custom — habit 
dangerous — in  danger 
date— engagement— appoint- 
ment 
deadly— deathly 
deal — transaction 
deception — deceit 


DICTION 


61 


decided — decisive 
decimate — destroy 
definite — definitive 
deny — refuse 
depot— station 
deprecate — depreciate 
deteriorate — detract 
difference — deference 
directly — as  soon  as 
discover — disclose 
discover — invent 
disinterested — uninterested 
displace — replace 
disposition — disposal 
distinct — distinctive 
divers — diverse 
dominate — domineer 
drive — ride 
dumb— stupid 
effect — affect 
elude — illude 
emigration — immigration 
eminent — prominent 
enormity — enormousness 
equable — equitable 
esteem — estimation 
example — problem 
exceed — excel 

exceptional — exceptionable 
exercise — exorcise 
expose — expound 
extend — give 
falsity — falseness 
farther — further 
female— woman 
final — finale 
fire — throw 
fix — repair — mend 
fly— flee 
fogy— foggy 
funny — odd 
genius — genus 


gentleman — man 

good — well 

guilt — guile 

happen — transpire 

healthy — healthful 

home — house 

horrid — unpleasant 

host — great  many 

human — humane 

idol — idyl — idle 

if — whether 

ignorant — illiterate 

illicit — elicit 

implicate — involve 

impotent — impudent 

impractical — impracticable 

impute — impugn 

in — into 

inaugurate — commence 

individual — person 

infallible — unfailing 

ingenious — ingenuous 

irony — sarcasm 

its — it's 

last — latest 

lay— lie 

lay — laid 

learn — teach 

lease — hire 

leave — let 

lend — loan 

less — fewer 

lightening — lightning 

limit — limitation 

limited — small 

live — reside 

locate — settle 

long— lengthy 

lose — loose 

love — like 

lovely — pretty 

luxuriant — luxurious 


62 


EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 


ma  j  ority— plurality 

manly — mannish 

moral — morale 

most — almost 

mutual — common 

near — nearly 

need — want 

neglect — negligence 

new — novel 

nice — attractive — beautiful 

noise — sound 

notice — mention 

notorious — notable — famous 

observation — observance 

obvious — evident 

odious — odorous 

often— constantly 

oral— verbal 

organism — organization 

part — portion 

partake — share 

partly— partially 

patron — customer 

pay— settle 

people— persons 

petition — partition 

perspicuity— perspicacity 

pitiable— pitiful 

plenty — abundance 

plenty— plentiful 

politic — political 

pomace— pumice 

posted — informed 

practical — practicable 

present — introduce 

preventive — not  preventative 

product— produce — produc- 
tion 

professor  -—instructor— 
teacher 

prominent — prominence 

promise — assure 


prophecy — prophesy 
proposal — proposition 
prosecute — persecute 
purpose — propose 
quite — quiet 
raise — rise 
real — really 
real — very 
real — reliable 
recipe— receipt 
recollect — remember 
relation — relative 
relic — relict 

remunerate — reimburse 
resourse — resource 
respectively — respectfully 
resume — sum  up 
reverend — reverent 
romance — novel 
rural — rustic 
scared — afraid 
scholar — pupil— student 
series— succession 
sewage — sewerage 
shall — will 

significance— signification 
sit— set 
site — situation 
solicitude — solicitation 
some — somewhat 
stationery — stationary 
statue — stature — statute 
successful — successive 
subtle — subtile 
swath— swathe 
tact— tack 
their — there 
then — than 
tract — track 
tragedy— disaster 
transpire — happen 
trend — direction 


DICTION  63 

truth— veracity  vocation — vacation — avoca- 
union— unity— unison  tion 

university— college— school  way— ways 

unquestioned— unquestion-  without— unless 

able  womanly — womanish 
visitor— visitant 

Slang.  One  of  the  commonest  forms  of  improprie- 
ties is  slang.  It  comprises  so  many  vivid  and  some- 
what humorous  metaphors,  and  is  so  often  picturesque, 
that  it  has  many  defenders  who  say  that  slang  is  but 
idiomatic  English  in  the  early  stages  of  development. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  are  many  who  not  only  de- 
nounce all  slang,  but  all  who  use  it.  Such  people  say 
that  all  slang  is  vulgar,  and  hence  that  no  one  can  use 
it  without  becoming  vulgar.  In  view  of  these  two  facts 
it  becomes  necessary  to  study  this  phase  of  diction 
with  discrimination. 

In  the  first  place,  it  is  not  true  that  all  slang  is  vul- 
gar. Much  of  it  is;  but  much  also  is  not.  Slang  is  a 
special,  limited  vocabulary,  often  consisting  of  bor- 
rowed or  coined  words  which  gain  ready  acceptance 
among  people  who  are  looking  for  immediate  and  strik- 
ing effect,  and  who  desire  to  register  a  protest  against 
hackneyed  and  commonplace  usage.  Such  coinage  and 
usage  of  new  ways  of  saying  things  is  inevitable  in  a 
living  and  growing  language  because  the  illiterate  have 
their  share  in  making  a  language  grow  and  in  keeping 
it  alive.  It  is  a  fact,  too,  that  some  expressions  that 
were  once  slang  are  now  reputable  idioms  which  could 
not  be  well  spared.  Such  expressions  as  "up  against 
it,"  and  "on  the  job,"  are  so  well  on  the  way  toward 


64  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

becoming  idioms  that  it  is  going  too  far  to  call  them 
vulgar.  It  must  be  remembered  that  as  soon  as  slang 
becomes  reputable  it  ceases  to  be  slang. 

What,  then,  is  to  be  the  attitude  of  the  student  of 
good  English  toward  slang?  It  should  not  be  wholly 
condemned,  inasmuch  as  it  has  been  shown  to  be  a 
step  toward  idiomatic  English — the  best  English.  If 
one  is  student  enough  to  know  good  slang  from  bad,  if 
he  is  strong  enough  to  be  master  of  it,  he  may  use  it 
with  proper  discrimination  upon  the  few  occasions  when 
it  is  picturesque  and  expressive.  One  who  occasionally 
uses  slang  in  this  guarded  way  should  not  be  denounced 
as  slangy  and  wholly  condemned.  A  few,  and  but  a 
few,  can  trust  themselves  to  use  slang  to  a  limited  ex- 
tent, but  never  vulgar  slang. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  case  against  slang  is  so  strong 
that  those  whose  practice  is  to  use  reputable  words 
only  should  not  be  denounced  as  literary  prudes  and 
extreme  purists. 

The  case  against  slang  may  be  summed  up  as  follows: 
The  users  of  slang  are  mostly  those  who  are  either 
ignorant  of  real  word-value  or  too  lazy  to  select  the 
best  word  to  express  an  idea  adequately.  What  Shake- 
speare said  about  idle  words  is  also  an  apt  description 
of  slang — "Idle  words — servants  to  shallow  fools. " 
Idle  words  do  nothing  worth  while.  When  one  tries  to 
use  a  good  word,  such  as  peach,  to  describe  every- 
thing that  meets  with  his  approval,  he  demonetizes  a 
good  word  so  that  it  becomes  idle,  because  indefinite. 
Slang  is  really  the  most  ineffective  form  of  speech,  even 


DICTION  Co 

in  its  own  narrow  territory.  Moreover,  it  is  short  lived; 
a  discovery  to-day,  a  memory  to-morrow.  Slang  is 
fatal  to  the  use  of  synonyms;  it  prevents  all  fine  shades 
of  meaning.  It  sacrifices  all  possibility  of  growth  into 
a  wider  command  of  language  for  a  supposed  immedi- 
ately picturesque  and  humorous  effect.  It  is  a  penny- 
wise-pound-foolish  policy.  It  is  a  lawless  adopting  of 
outlandish  new  substitutes  for  usage  which  long  custom 
has  tested  and  which  reputable  writers  and  speakers 
have  made  permanent.  Careful  people  do  not  run  after 
every  new  and  fantastic  fashion  in  words;  they  wait, 
and  they  are  rewarded.  In  a  word,  the  whole  question 
of  slang  reduces  itself  to  this:  If  one  would  stagnate 
and  deteriorate,  let  him  become  a  slave  to  slang.  If  one 
would  grow,  let  him  make  his  diction  a  matter  of  study 
and  of  conscience. 

Oliver  Wendell  Holmes  spoke  to  the  point  on  this 
form  of  impropriety: 

"I  think  there  is  one  habit  worse  than  that 
of  punning.  It  is  the  gradual  substitution  of 
cant  or  flash  terms  for  words  which  truly  char- 
acterize their  objects.  I  have  known  several 
very  genteel  idiots  whose  whole  vocabulary 
had  deliquesced  into  some  half-dozen  expres- 
sions. All  things  fell  into  one  of  two  great 
categories,  fast  or  slow.  Man's  chief  end  was  to 
be  a  brick.  When  the  great  calamities  of  life 
overtook  their  friends,  these  last  were  spoken 
of  as  being  a  great  deal  cut  up.  Nine  tenths  of 
human  existence  were  summed  up  in  a  single 
word,  bore.    These  expressions  come  to  be  alge- 


66  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

braic  symbols  of  minds  which  have  grown  too 
weak  or  too  indolent  to  discriminate.  They  are 
the  blank  checks  of  intellectual  bankruptcy; 
you  may  fill  them  out  with  what  idea  you  like, 
it  makes  no  difference,  for  there  are  no  funds 
in  the  treasury  upon  which  they  are  drawn. 
.  .  .  Do  not  think  I  undervalue  the  proper  use 
and  application  of  a  proper  cant-word  or 
phrase.  It  adds  picquancy  to  conversation, 
as  a  mushroom  does  to  a  sauce.  But  it  is  no 
better  than  a  toadstool,  odious  to  sense  and 
poisonous  to  the  intellect  when  it  spawns  itself 
all  over  the  talk  of  men  and  youths  capable  of 
talking,  as  it  sometimes  does.  ..." 

Let  us  discriminate  and  be  shy  of  absolute  pro- 
scription. 

Solecisms  embrace  all  errors  in  grammar  except 
idioms,  and  need  no  further  mention  here. 

Good  Use.  Words  have  " standing."  There  is  what 
Ruskin  calls  "the  peerage  of  words,"  and  it  is  by  their 
standing  that  our  words  must  be  judged.  We  call  this 
standard  good  use,  a  term  which  demands  explana- 
tion. It  means  the  words  used  by  the  best  writers  of 
English  and  the  best  speakers  of  the  language.  By 
"best"  we  mean  those  writers  and  speakers  who  have 
succeeded  in  so  appealing  to  their  readers  and  listen- 
ers as  to  hold  their  attention,  make  them  understand 
their  message,  feel  its  importance  (or  lack  of  import- 
ance), and  receive  some  pleasure  from  the  manner  in 
which  the  message  is  presented.  Good  use  is  a  sort  of 
standardizing  of  the  words  of  those  who  have  been 


DICTION  67 

able  writers  and  have  succeeded  in  making  what  they 
wrote  clear,  forceful,  and  elegant.  It  is  more  than  the 
verdict  of  public  opinion,  for  that  could  not  measure 
good  use.  Numbers  do  not  settle  such  matters.  It 
is  the  verdict  of  the  opinion  of  the  few  who  have  the 
right  to  be  called  authorities;  an  opinion  expressed, 
not  directly  as  an  opinion,  but  indirectly  through  the 
way  they  have  written.  Good,  enduring  literature  is 
the  source  of  what  we  call  good  use.  Grammars  and 
dictionaries  have  been  made  from  a  study  of  good 
literature,  and  are  the  great  aids  in  keeping  people 
to-day  up  to  the  standard  of  literature  without  the 
need  of  an  exhaustive  study  of  literature.  Grammars 
and  dictionaries  are  the  practical  means  of  bringing  the 
standards  of  good  use  within  reach  of  all. 

By  good  use  we  mean  reputable,  national,  and  present 
use. 

Reputable  Use.  By  reputable  words  we  mean  those 
of  good  reputation,  those  habitually  employed  by  the 
best  writers  and  speakers,  those  which  do  not  offend 
good  taste;  in  brief,  we  mean  words  which  are  not 
barbarisms  or  improprieties.  Reputable  words  are 
those  which  are  pronounced  "good"  because  they  are 
used  by  all  the  best  makers  of  literature. 

National  Use.  By  national  use  we  mean  universal 
use  as  far  as  our  own  country  is  concerned.  It  means 
that  no  localisms,  no  provincialisms,  can  be  accepted 
as  "good  use."  It  means  that  whatever  one  writes 
must  be  equally  intelligible  to  readers  in  Boston,  Phila- 
delphia, Chicago,  New  Orleans,  and  San  Francisco. 


68  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

National  use,  however,  is  to  be  taken  in  a  wider 
sense  to  include  universal  "good  use"  in  England  as 
well  as  in  America.  While,  of  course,  there  are  some 
differences,  good  English  words  are  good  American 
words;  good  American  words  are  also  good  English 
words.  England  and  America  are  both  constantly  bor- 
rowing from  each  other,  so  that  it  is  safe  to  say  that 
" national  use"  means  good  use  by  the  best  writers 
and  speakers  who  use  the  English  language  the  world 
over. 

Well-read  people  never  find  difficulty  in  understand- 
ing authors  who  give  " local  color"  to  descriptions  of 
places  characterized  by  their  own  peculiarities  and  who 
make  characters  in  books  speak  their  own  language, 
however  full  of  provincialisms  it  may  be.  In  fact  they 
count  such  usage  one  of  the  chief  charms  of  literature. 
Writers  violate  the  principle  of  " national  use"  only 
when  they  use  local  words,  barbarisms,  technical  words, 
and  Anglicisms,  when  there  is  no  good  reason  for  so 
doing  and  every  reason  for  speaking  so  as  to  satisfy 
the  universal  demand  for  a  commonly  understood 
diction. 

Present  Use.  By  present  use  is  meant  the  employ- 
ment of  words  now  understood  and  with  the  meaning 
now  understood.  This  principle  rules  out  obsolete 
words  and  "new  words,"  by  which  we  mean  those  not 
yet  accepted,  such  as  slang,  newspaper  words,  and  the 
like.  The  word  prevent,  as  used  in  the  authorized 
version  of  the  Bible  and  in  Shakespeare,  means  "to  go 
before."     Now  it  means  "to  hinder,"  and  should  be 


DICTION  69 

used  in  that  sense  only.  The  same  is  true  of  let.  When 
Hamlet  says: 

"By  Heaven,  I'll  make  a  ghost  of  him  that  lets  me," 

he  uses  the  word  let  according  to  the  meaning  then 
accepted;  namely,  "to  hinder."  Now,  however,  it 
means  just  the  opposite,  and  should  be  used  in  that 
sense  in  accordance  with  the  principle  of  " present  use." 

Most  rhetoricians  agree  in  saying  that  good  use  is 
determined  by  the  three  principles  just  explained:  re- 
putable use,  national  use,  and  present  use.  The  three 
characteristics,  however,  are  all  relative,  and  should 
not  be  used  in  an  arbitrary  sense  in  applying  them  to 
a  living  and  constantly  changing  language  like  our 
own.  As  general  principles  they  are  of  great  value;  as 
strict  rules  they  would  be  found  confusing. 

The  Writer's  Problem.  The  writer's  problem  is  to 
become  the  master  of  a  sufficiently  large  and  varied 
vocabulary  to  enable  him  to  embody  his  thoughts,  and 
the  separate  ideas  which  compose  them,  in  such  a  way 
as  to  make  them  readily  intelligible  to  others,  interest- 
ing to  them,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  pleasing  to  them. 
Of  fundamental  importance  in  learning  to  "make  a 
finished  product  of  effective  expression"  is  the  writer's 
supply  of  words.  By  "supply  of  words"  we  do  not,  of 
course,  mean  the  words  one  may  hunt  up  in  a  diction- 
ary. They  are  not  his.  By  "supply  of  words "  we  mean 
the  words  one  knows  and  can  use  immediately.  Unless 
this  supply  is  comparatively  large  the  writer  will  find 
it  impossible  to  make  any  progress  when  he  begins  to 


70  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

embody  his  thoughts  in  a  tangible  form.  If  he  has  to 
stop  too  often  to  consult  a  dictionary  he  will  lose  his 
trend  of  thought  and  give  up  in  despair.  One  must  have 
a  good  working  vocabulary  before  beginning  to  write. 
Only  when  he  has  that  can  he  hope  to  get  help  from 
the  dictionary,  or  book  of  synonyms,  to  supplement 
what  he  has.  To  depend  wholly  upon  the  dictionary 
at  the  time  of  writing  must  be  avoided.  How,  then, 
shall  one  secure  his  vocabulary? 

Vocabulary  Building.  Vocabulary  building  is  a  life- 
long process.  The  small  child  begins  with  no  vocabu- 
lary at  all,  but  as  soon  as  he  learns  to  prattle  he  picks 
up  new  words  almost  daily  by  the  process  of  imitating 
his  elders.  This  goes  on  continuously,  for  he  seems 
proud  of  his  growing  powers  of  expression  until  he  enters 
his  teens,  when,  all  too  often,  he  is  inclined  to  rest  upon 
his  accomplishments  in  vocabulary  building.  In  many 
cases,  doubtless,  he  may  feel  justified  in  this,  because 
he  has  already  a  larger  supply  of  words  than  his  par- 
ents. But  this  is  the  time,  usually  coincident  with  his 
entering  high  school,  when  higher  standards  than  paren- 
tal example  become  necessary.  Then  is  the  time  for 
you  (we  address  you  directly  now)  to  apply  an  educa- 
tional standard  in  the  use  of  which  your  teachers  can 
guide  you. 

Every  new  subject  will  require  a  large  number  of 
new  words  if  you  would  understand  it.  In  your  Eng- 
lish you  will  read  many  books  dealing  with  life  in  terms 
new  to  you.  To  understand  and  to  appreciate  these 
books  you  will  again  have  to  increase  your  vocabulary. 


DICTION  71 

Every  new  word  acquired  will  soon  become  an  old 
friend  who  will  make  further  reading  both  easier  and 
more  interesting.  If  you  do  not  master  the  strange 
words  they  will  cause  you  embarrassment  every  time 
you  meet  them,  and  you  will  not  make  progress;  you 
may  even  be  tempted  to  call  your  studies  dull  and  un- 
interesting. The  difficulty,  however,  will  be  in  you 
and  not  in  the  books.  If  you  form  the  habit,  which 
will  at  first  be  attended  with  labor,  you  will  make 
steady  progress  and  you  will  like  it,  feeling  new  power 
with  every  new  word.  No  one  thing  can  do  more  for 
you  in  making  it  easy  to  understand  what  you  read 
and  in  making  it  possible  for  you  to  express  your  own 
thoughts. 

The  Value  of  an  Adequate  Dictionary.  We  say  "  ade- 
quate" because  altogether  too  many  seem  to  think 
that  any  dictionary  will  do,  so  they  try  to  get  along 
with  an  old  one,  an  old  one  newly  bound  and  sold 
cheap,  or  a  very  small  one.  All  of  these  are  inadequate 
because  they  are  out  of  date  or  because  they  are  too 
much  abridged.  Their  definitions  are  often  only  syn- 
onymns,  and  hence  are  misleading.  Every  student 
should  possess  a  dictionary  of  his  own — an  unabridged 
one  if  possible,  but  none  smaller  than  the  high  school 
student's  or  a  "desk"  dictionary,  such  as  the  Webster's 
Academic  Dictionary. 

An  adequate  dictionary  gives  the  following  informa- 
tion: 

1.  Spelling  (including  syllabication,  e.g..,  syl-lab-i-ca- 
tion). 


72  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

2.  Approved  pronunciations,  i.e.,  all  allowed  by  good 
usage,  together  with  accent  marks  and  the  sounds  of 
the  letters. 

3.  Etymology,  or  derivation,  of  words. 

4.  Part,  or  parts,  of  speech,  including  the  principal 
parts  of  verbs. 

5.  The  meanings.  When  necessary  further  informa- 
tion is  given  telling  when  a  word  is  archaic,  obsolete, 
obsolescent,  colloquial,  or  slang. 

6.  Synonyms  and  antonymns. 

7.  Sentences  illustrating  various  meanings  (in  un- 
abridged dictionaries). 

In  the  use  of  large  dictionaries,  where  several  defini- 
tions are  given,  one  must  be  careful  to  examine  them 
all  to  insure  his  finding  the  exact  information  wanted. 
For  instance,  take  the  word  "  diction "  as  treated  in 
the  New  Standard  Dictionary: 

dic'tion,  1,  dik'shan;  2,  dfc'shon,  n.  1.  The 
use  of  words  or  the  manner  of  using  them, 
either  in  literature,  oratory,  or  song;  the  man- 
ner in  which  anything  is  expressed  in  words. 
It  includes  articulation,  pronunciation,  intona- 
tion, declamation,  and  punctuation.  2.  Spe- 
cif., that  department  of  rhetoric  which  deals 
with  the  choice  and  arrangement  of  words  and 
modes  of  expression.  See  Style,  Vocabulary. 
3.  A  phrase;  a  verbal  description.  [<L.  die- 
tio(n),  <dico,  say]. 

Syn. :  Expression,  language,  phrase,  phrase- 
ology, style,  vocabulary,  wording.  An  author's 
diction  is  strictly  his  choice  and  use  of  words, 


DICTION  75 

with  no  special  reference  to  thought;  expres- 
sion regards  the  words  simply  as  the  vehicle 
of  thought.  Phrase  and  phraseology  apply  to 
words  or  combinations  of  words  which  are 
somewhat  technical;  as  in  legal  phraseology) 
in  military  phrase.  Diction  is  general;  word- 
ing is  limited;  we  speak  of  the  diction  of  an 
author  or  of  a  work,  the  wording  of  a  proposi- 
tion, a  resolution,  etc.  {verbiage  never  bears 
this  sense;  see  Circumlocution).  The  language 
of  a  writer  or  speaker  may  be  the  national 
speech  he  employs;  as,  the  English  or  French 
language)  or  the  word  may  denote  his  use  of 
that  language;  as,  the  author's  language  is 
Well  (or  ill)  chosen.  Style  includes  diction,  ex- 
pression, rhetorical  figures  such  as  metaphor 
and  simile,  the  effect  of  an  author's  prevailing 
tone  of  thought,  of  his  personal  traits — in 
short,  all  that  makes  up  the  clothing  of 
thought  in  words;  thus,  we  speak  of  a  figura- 
tive style,  a  frigid  or  an  argumentative  style,  or 
of  the  style  of  Macaulay,  Prescott,  etc. 

That  single  illustration  of  the  word  diction,  which  it 
is  now  most  essential  to  understand  fully,  shows  the 
value  of  the  dictionary.  It  is  the  guidebook  without 
which  no  student  of  English  can  travel  far,  nor  at  all 
profitably,  into  the  vast  unknown  country  of  literature. 
No  other  book  so  well  compensates  for  the  amount  of 
study  given  it.  No  other  book  can  take  its  place. 
Learn  how  to  use  it.  When  you  know  how  to  use  it, 
and  use  it  daily  and  often  every  day,  only  then  will 
you  fully  comprehend  its  value;    The  more  you  use  it 


74  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

the  more  it  will  impart  to  you  its  treasures,  and  the 
more  you  will  value  them.  Constant  use  of  the  dic- 
tionary while  in  school  and  college  will  result  in  such 
a  vocabulary  that  afterward  only  an  occasional  con- 
sultation will  suffice;  but  a  stinted,  haphazard,  and 
begrudging  use  during  one's  period  of  adolescence  and 
early  manhood,  when  knowledge  comes  comparatively 
easily,  will  mean  a  whole  life  handicapped  with  a  bur- 
den of  embarrassing  ignorance. 

Emerson  went  so  far  as  to  commend  the  dictionary 
as  a  book  to  read,  and  his  diction  is  undeniable  evi- 
dence of  the  extent  of  his  familiarity  with  it.  He  said : 
"Neither  is  a  dictionary  a  bad  book  to  read.  There 
is  no  cant  in  it,  no  excess  of  explanation,_and  it  is  full 
of  suggestion.' ' 

(Note:  The  greatest  dictionary  in  existence  is  the  Oxford  Dic- 
tionary. It  is  exhaustive,  the  last  word  on  the  subject.  The  best 
American  dictionaries  are  the  Standard,  Webster's,  and  the  Cen- 
tury (encyclopedic). 

Acquiring  and  using  the  dictionary  habit  is  the  only 
adequate  method  of  solving  the  problem  of  vocabulary 
building.    It  does  solve  it. 

But  the  mere  possession  of  a  large  supply  of  words 
does  not  solve  the  problem  of  diction,  which,  as  we  have 
seen,  means  the  right  use  of  words  in  expression.  Hav- 
ing an  adequate  vocabulary,  how  shall  one  proceed  to 
use  it?  Even  the  standards  of  good  usage,  already 
explained,  do  not  go  far  enough.  We  must  learn  the 
two  fundamental  powers  of  words,  denotation  and  con- 
notation. 


DICTION  75 

Denotation.  Denotation  is  the  naming  of  a  thing, 
marking  it  off  to  distinguish  it  from  all  other  things, 
giving  a  logical  definition  of  it.  The  dictionary  gives 
the  denotation  of  a  word.  What  a  word  denotes  has 
to  do  with  the  word  itself  without  regard  to  other 
words  with  which  it  may  be  used,  without  regard  to 
any  special  significance  it  may  have  for  some  people. 
The  first  matter  to  decide  in  choosing  a  word  is  that 
it  can  express  the  exact  meaning  you  have  in  mind. 
All  words  have  denotation. 

Connotation.  By  Connota  ion  we  mean  a  secon- 
dary denotation,  a  reference  to  something  else  than 
the  object  named,  but  suggested  by  it.  Most  nouns, 
verbs,  adjectives,  and  interjections  have  varying  de- 
grees of  connotation;  the  other  parts  of  speech  have 
little  or  none.  The  amount  of  connotation  a  word  may 
have  depends  upon  the  intelligence  and  the  emotional 
activity  and  imagination  of  the  reader.  It  may  be 
called  a  subjective  quality  from  the  viewpoint  of  the 
reader.  But  a  writer  cannot  give  his  reader  the  pleas- 
ure of  finding  a  rich  connotation  without  selecting  con- 
notative  words.  The  only  sure  way  to  know  such  words 
is  to  study  literature,  especially  poetry,  until  one  is 
familiar  with  words  as  others  have  used  them,  until  he 
has  seen  the  company  they  have  kept.  The  "  better 
read"  one  is,  the  more  he  knows  of  life,  the  richer  his 
experiences,  the  more  he  will  be  able  to  choose  words 
rich  in  connotation,  full  of  suggestiveness,  and  hence 
capable  of  arousing  the  interest  and  promoting  the 
pleasure  of  the  intelligent  reader. 


76  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

The  chief  source  of  pleasure  in  reading  comes  from 
connotation.  The  more  one  reads,  if  he  reads  appre- 
ciatively, the  more  he  will  want  to  read.  Knowing 
the  power  of  connotation  he  can  "read  between  the 
lines,"  find  countless  appropriate  images  clustering 
around  familiar  words,  and  find  charms  of  which  the 
uninitiated  never  dream.  The  writer  must  select  words 
of  connotation  to  produce  the  finished  product  of  effec- 
tive expression  capable  of  interesting  the  reader. 

Since  much  of  the  charm  of  poetry  lies  in  its  sugges- 
tiveness,  we  naturally  turn  to  the  poets  for  examples 
of  perfect  connotation.  Few  words  may  be  used,  the 
facts  stated  may  be  but  trifling,  but  the  thought  reac- 
tion, the  emotional  reaction  they  produce,  is  often 
tremendous.    Take,  for  example,  Poe's  lines  from  Helen. 

"To  the  glory  that  was  Greece 
And  the  grandeur  that  was  Rome." 

Note  also  the  almost  uncanny  connotation  from  the 
single  fine  which  closes  Poe's  Haunted  Palace,  so  truly, 
so  sadly  characterizing  the  insane: 

"And  laugh — but  smile  no  more." 

The  closing  fines  of  Wordsworth's  She  Dwelt  Among 
the  Untrodden  Ways  give  a  splendid  connotation  of 
pathos,  though  the  word  used  is  "difference." 

"But  she  is  in  her  grave,  and,  oh, 
The  difference  to  me!" 

The  secret  of  enjoying  connotation,  even  the  secret 
of  finding  it,  lies  in  a  leisurely  reading,  in  second  thought 


DICTION  77 

to  give  the  implied  meanings  time  to  reach  us.  Linger 
over  the  following  lines  from  Wordsworth's  Excursion 
and  see  if  you  do  not  find  a  forceful  connotation  sug- 
gesting desolation,  loneliness,  and  yet  a  home  not  to 
be  despised. 

"A  quiet  treeless  nook,  with  two  green  fields, 
A  liquid  pool  that  glittered  in  the  sun, 
And  one  bare  dwelling;  one  abode,  no  more! 
It  seemed  the  home  of  poverty  and  toil, 
Though  not  of  want:  the  little  fields  made  green 
By  husbandry  of  many  thrifty  years, 
Paid  cheerful  tribute  to  the  moorland  house." 

Words  expressive  of  great  emotion — love,  joy,  ecstasy, 
sorrow,  patriotism,  are  always  so  full  of  meaning  that 
they  overflow,  as  it  were,  with  suggestions  of  more 
meaning  for  all  who  have  shared  such  emotions.  Fig- 
urative words  are  connotative  because,  from  their  very 
nature,  they  imply  some  sort  of  comparison,  and  so 
bring  up  other  ideas  appealing  to  the  imagination. 
How  rich  in  connotation  are  metaphors,  apostrophes, 
allusions!  The  success  of  an  allegory,  or  even  a  parable 
or  fable,  depends  upon  appreciating  the  large  conno- 
tation. The  same  is  true  of  satire  and  humor.  A  sense 
of  humor  might  be  defined  as  an  ability  to  discover 
pleasing  connotations.  Words  used  with  striking  suc- 
cess by  authors;  words  inseparably  associated  with 
noted  men  or  events  in  history,  such  as  mark  the 
struggle  for  liberty  and  independence;  mystic  words, 
passwords,  symbolic  words,  whatever  their  denotation, 
have  a  wide  connotation.  Then,  too,  there  are  count- 
less words  which  have  a  personal  connotation,  full  of 


78  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

suggestion  for  ourselves  though  not  for  others,  such  as 
words  reminiscent  of  red-letter  days,  great  sorrows, 
crises  in  our  lives,  and  all  things  that  have  affected  us 
peculiarly  or  profoundly. 

So  important  is  connotation,  and  so  little  appreciated, 
that  I  quote  two  paragraphs  from  Professor  S.  H. 
Clark's  Interpretation  of  the  Printed  Page'. 

"Relevatory  as  the  discussion  of  connota- 
tion has  been,  it  has  merely  emphasized  what 
we  have  always  known — that  words  are  sug- 
gestive, and  that  they  stir  us  emotionally. 
But  have  we  not  learned  the  greatest  of  all 
lessons  in  connection  with  the  study  of  litera- 
ture? Learned  that  it  cannot  be  taught,  that 
it  can  only  be  presented  to  you  for  your  ac- 
ceptance or  rejection?  You  have  come  to  see 
that  it  appeals  not  to  the  practical  or  scientific 
side  of  your  nature,  but  to  the  imaginative; 
that  its  purpose  is  to  give  you  'delight/  as 
Lowell  says,  through  the  arousal  of  the  emo- 
tions; and  connotation  is  the  most  important 
element  in  stirring  the  imagination  and  arous- 
ing the  feelings.  Your  delight  is  in  the  pic- 
tures, ideas,  thoughts,  characters,  music,  of 
the  verse  and  prose  which  is  called  literature. 
You  have  come  to  see  now  that  without  de- 
notation the  connotation  may  escape  you  en- 
tirely; and  best  of  all,  you  see  that  all  you 
know  of  life,  art,  history,  science,  nature,  the 
wider  will  be  for  you  the  connotation  of  litera- 
ture. And  it  is  connotation  that  makes  litera- 
ture great. 

"It  is  the  beauty  about  us  in  man  and  na- 


DICTION  79 

ture  that  stirs  the  artist's  heart  and  is  the  im- 
pulse to  create.  It  is  what  the  ordinary  man 
fails  to  see  that  moves  the  artist's  soul  and 
urges  him  to  expression,  whether  he  be  painter 
or  sculptor  or  poet.  To  arouse  deep  feeling — 
of  joy  or  pity  or  indignation  or  love — that  is 
the  artist's  mission.  Everything  in  literature 
depends  upon  the  connotation.  And  the  con- 
notation depends  upon  our  experience,  our 
temperament,  our  education.  What  moves 
me  may  not  move  others,  and  what  stirs  them 
may  leave  me  cold.  But  the  greatest  artist  is 
he  whose  appeal  is  the  most  nearly  universal 
to  all  peoples  and  to  all  times." 

Denotation  and  connotation  indicate  in  a  general 
way  how  to  select  the  right  word.  To  be  more  specific, 
however,  we  must  test  the. fitness  of  words  by  examin- 
ing them  in  the  light  of  the  three  great  rhetorical  quali- 
ties— clearness,  force,  and  elegance. 

The  Right  Word  for  Clearness.  Words  are  but  the 
symbols  whereby  ideas  are  indicated.  Clearness  de- 
mands that  of  all  possible  words  the  one  should  be 
chosen  which  embodies  the  idea  most  precisely.  Pre- 
cision is  not  satisfied  with  finding  a  word  that  is  good, 
that  is  of  reputable,  national,  and  present  use;  it  de- 
mands the  word  that  expresses  the  idea  in  mind  with 
exactness  and  without  any  likelihood  of  appearing  am- 
biguous, vague,  or  obscure  to  the  reader.  This  means 
that  an  abstract  idea  requires  an  abstract  word;  that 
a  concrete  idea  requires  a  concrete  word ;  that  a  general 
idea  requires  a  general  word;    that  a  specific  idea  re- 


80  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

quires  a  specific  word;  that  a  technical  idea  requires 
a  very  specific,  or  technical  word,  and  that  any  idea  of 
exceptional  significance,  such  as  a  homely  idea,  a  dis- 
tinctly local  one,  or  a  poetic  one,  requires  a  word  that 
expresses  the  homeliness,  local  color,  or  poetic  appeal, 
with  precision. 

The  commonest  mistakes  are  made  by  using  general 
terms  to  excess.  Some,  however,  after  being  told  that 
specific  words  are  better  than  general  ones,  get  into  the 
habit  of  using  them  even  when  general  ones  are  more 
precise. 

The  secret  of  clearness  in  the  use  of  words  lies  in 
clear  thought.  If  the  idea  is  clearly  defined  in  the 
mind  of  the  writer,  he  will  not  be  satisfied  with  the 
first  word  he  thinks  of.  He  will  estimate  the  fitness  of 
all  possible  words,  to  find  which  one  will  precisely 
denote  the  idea.  If  he  is  in  doubt  he  will  refresh  his 
memory  by  consulting  a  dictionary  or  book  of  syn- 
onyms until  he  finds  which  word  is  best  for  his  present 
purpose.  The  dictionary  will  give  the  correct  denota- 
tion and  the  book  of  synonyms  will  give  him  the  exact 
shade  of  meaning  for  the  adequate  embodying  of  his 
idea.  Time  thus  spent  is  never  wasted.  Care  here 
will  soon  render  one  practically  immune  from  the  dan- 
ger of  using  improprieties;  being  on  the  alert  for  the 
right  word,  he  will  accept  nothing  else. 

For  instance,  when  the  present  writer  once  sought  to 
characterize  Mrs.  Gaskell's  Cranford  with  great  pre- 
cision, and  at  the  same  time  to  avoid  giving  the  idea 
that  the  book  might  be  called  weak  and  without  charm, 


DICTION  81 

lie  consulted  Roget's  Thesaurus,  after  which  he  was 
satisfied,  and  wrote  this  sentence,  "Crawford  is  never 
overdrawn,  never  stilted  nor  insipid  [italicised  here  but 
not  in  the  original],  never  vulgar,  and  never  unsympa- 
thetic nor  unkindly  critical." 

In  expository  writing,  where  clearness  is  the  most 
essential  quality,  the  exact  word  is  absolutely  essential. 
In  narration  and  description  it  adds  life  and  vividness, 
and  is  again  indispensable.  It  has  been  said  of  Poe 
and  Coleridge  that  they  had  "a  genius  for  the  right 
word,"  and  it  is  because  of  that  quality  that  their 
writings  so  satisfy  our  "  word  sense  "  and  prepare  the  way 
for  the  other  appeals  which  they  make  upon  the  reader. 

It  is  not  in  regard  to  the  nouns  and  verbs  alone  that 
precision  is  necessary.  Adjectives  and  adverbs  de- 
mand the  greatest  care  lest  we  use  too  strong  or  too 
weak  ones,  and  so  violate  the  dictum  of  precision. 
And  even  prepositions  and  conjunctions,  if  selected 
with  care,  go  far  toward  securing  the  product  of  effec- 
tive expression. 

The  following  paragraph  from  Poe's  Fall  of  the  House 
of  Usher  may  well  serve  the  double  purpose  of  illus- 
trating the  precise  word  for  securing  clearness  and  the 
right  word  to  produce  force.  The  italicized  words, 
mostly  adjectives  and  adverbs,  make  it  impossible  to 
miss  the  writer's  meaning,  the  denotation  of  the  words; 
while,  at  the  same  time,  they  have  such  evident  conno- 
tation that  we  feel  the  writer's  emotions. 

"  During  the  whole  of  a  dull,   dark,   and 
soundless  day  in  the  autumn  of  the  year,  when 


82  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

the  clouds  hung  oppressively  low  in  the  heav- 
ens, I  had  been  passing  alone,  on  horseback, 
through  a  singularly  dreary  tract  of  country, 
and  at  length  found  myself,  as  the  shades  of 
the  evening  drew  on,  within  view  of  the  mel- 
ancholy House  of  Usher.  I  know  not  how  it 
was,  but  with  the  first  glimpse  of  the  building 
a  sense  of  insufferable  gloom  pervaded  my  spirit. 
I  say  insufferable,  for  the  feeling  was  unrelieved 
by  any  of  that  half-pleasurable,  because  poe- 
tic, sentiment  with  which  the  mind  usually  re- 
ceives even  the  sternest  natural  images  of  the 
desolate  or  terrible.  I  looked  upon  the  scene 
before  me — upon  the  mere  house,  and  the  sim- 
ple landscape  features  of  the  domain — upon 
the  bleak  walls — upon  the  vacant  eyelike  win- 
dows— upon  the  few  rank  sedges — and  upon  a 
few  white  trunks  of  decayed  trees — with  an 
utter  depression  of  soul  which  I  can  compare  to 
no  earthly  sensation  more  properly  than  to 
the  after-dream  of  the  reveler  upon  opium — 
the  bitter  lapse  into  everyday  life — the  hideous 
dropping  off  of  the  veil.  There  was  an  iciness, 
sl  sinking,  a  sickening  of  the  heart — an  unre- 
deemed dreariness  of  thought  which  no  goading 
of  the  imagination  could  torture  into  aught  of 
the  sublime.  What  was  it — I  paused  to  think 
— what  was  it  that  so  unnerved  me  in  the  con- 
templation of  the  House  of  Usher?  It  was  a 
mystery  all  insoluble ;  nor  could  I  grapple  with 
the  shadowy  fancies  that  crowded  upon  me  as 
I  pondered.  I  was  forced  to  fall  back  upon  the 
unsatisfactory  conclusion  that  while,  beyond 
doubt,  there  are  combinations  of  very  simple 
natural  objects  which  have  the  power  of  thus 


DICTION  83 

affecting  us,  still  the  analysis  of  this  power  lies 
among  the  considerations  beyond  our  depth. 
It  was  possible,  I  reflected,  that  a  mere  differ- 
ent arrangement  of  the  particulars  of  the  scene 
of  the  details  of  the  picture  would  be  sufficient 
to  modify,  or  perhaps  to  annihilate  its  capacity 
for  sorrowful  impression ;  and  acting  upon  this 
idea,  I  reined  my  horse  to  the  precipitous  brink 
of  a  black  and  lurid  tarn  that  lay  in  unruffled 
luster  by  the  dwelling,  and  gazed  down — but 
with  a  shudder  even  more  thrilling  than  before 
— upon  the  remodeled  and  inverted  images  of 
the  gray  sedge,  and  the  ghastly  tree  stems,  and 
the  vacant  and  eyelike  windows.' y 

The  Right  Word  for  Force.  Necessary  as  clearness  is 
to  insure  perfect  understanding,  it  is  often  incapable 
of  arousing  interest.  As  we  have  already  seen,  interest 
depends  upon  force  and  force  upon  connotation.  The 
word  that  stands  the  test  for  clearness  may,  or  may 
not,  stand  the  test  for  force.  It  may  appeal  to  the 
mind,  but  not  to  the  emotions;  it  may  be  clear,  but 
weak,  and  so  leave  the  reader  unmoved.  The  only 
way  to  remedy  this  defect  is  to  choose  the  right  words 
for  force. 

Here  again  the  study  of  synonyms  aids  us.  Among 
the  possible  synonyms  which  might  be  used,  the  prin- 
ciple of  force  demands  that  we  select  the  one  which 
not  only  denotes  the  idea  we  wish  to  express,  but  the 
one  which  also  connotes,  or  suggests,  something  more 
than  its  precise  meaning.  One  of  the  best  ways  of  being 
forceful  enough  to  arouse  interest  is  to  choose  homely 


84  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

words,  words  which  are  everywhere  familiar  because 
they  have  been  in  use  so  long,  because  they  bring  up 
many  memories  and  deep  emotions;  because,  in  a 
word,  of  their  rich  connotation. 

Take  the  word  home  itself.  It  is  probably  the  richest 
in  connotation  of  all  the  words  in  the  English  language, 
even  including  the  word  mother,  for  the  word  home 
connotes  mother.  By  homely  words  we  mean  those 
closely  associated  with  home,  used  in  the  home  in 
constant,  daily  intercourse.  They  are  always  forceful, 
and  hence  interesting.  They  arrest  the  attention;  they 
are  expressive;  they  are  effective.  They  might  almost 
be  called  " living  words"  but  for  the  fact  that  the  con- 
notation of  " living  words"  is  such  that  it  is  better, 
here,  to  call  them  vital  words. 

There  is  to-day  a  dangerous  tendency,  even  in  the 
home,  to  substitute  slang  for  homely  words.  Those 
who  do  so  may  simply  mean  to  use  especially  expres- 
sive words,  and  they  think  slang  very  expressive.  It 
takes  but  little  thought,  however,  to  make  it  clear  to 
one  that,  except  in  a  very  limited  sphere,  slang  is  the 
least  expressive  of  all  language.  Its  very  newness,  its 
lack  of  connotation,  make  it  feeble  indeed  when  con- 
trasted with  the  pure,  homely  words  which  so  abound 
in  the  mother  tongue. 

Closely  associated  with  homely  words  are  idioms, 
those  most  homely  expressions  which  have  survived 
from  the  earliest  times  and  are  so  rich  in  metaphor,  in 
associations.  Idiomatic  English  is  the  best  English  and 
it  is  the  best  because  the  most  forceful. 


DICTION  85 

There  are  many  occasions  when  homely  words  are 
not  entirely  appropriate,  when  words  of  more  formality 
are  required  to  produce  the  desired  force.  The  most 
effective  method,  then,  is  to  select  figurative  words, 
words  which  increase  their  connotative  power  because 
they  are  used  in  some  other  than  their  literal  sense,  and 
so  make  a  strong  appeal  to  the  imagination.  Metaphor, 
personification,  and  apostrophe  are  the  figures  most 
suitable  for  increasing  the  force  of  an  idea.  To  say,  "I 
remember,"  is  perfectly  clear,  but  wholly  lacking  in 
force.  But  note  the  force  of  these  words,  "  Remem- 
brance wakes  with  all  her  busy  train." 

Take  a  single  sentence  from  the  quotation  from  Poe 
(page  81):  "It  was  a  mystery  all  insoluble)  nor  could 
I  grapple  with  the  shadowy  fancies  that  crowded  upon 
me  as  I  pondered."  Note  the  italicized  words.  Not 
only  do  they  make  the  meaning  clear;  they  make  us 
feel  as  the  traveler  felt  as  he  saw  the  bleak  walls  of  the 
melancholy  House  of  Usher.  Each  word  overflows 
with  suggestion — mystery,  insoluble,  grapple,  shadowy f 
fancies,  crowded,  pondered.  We  cannot  get  away  from 
such  words.  In  spite  of  ourselves  our  attention  is 
riveted  upon  them.    We  are  interested. 

The  chief  secret  of  force  in  words  is  to  choose  words 
rich  in  connotation. 

The  Right  Word  for  Elegance.  Elegance,  like  clear- 
ness and  force,  must  be  considered  in  finding  the  right 
word.  Elegance  is  an  undervalued  quality  of  rhetoric. 
It  is,  however,  of  the  greatest  importance.  Negatively, 
it  should  prevent  us  from  giving  offense;  positively,  it 


86  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

should  enable  us  to  please.  Elegance  has  to  do  with  the 
niceties  of  language;  with  aptness  and  appropriateness 
in  selecting  words;  with  propriety  suitable  to  the  sub- 
ject considered,  the  occasion,  and  the  kind  of  persons 
addressed.  Elegance  demands  clearness;  allows  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  force,  but  opposes  too  much  force. 
Elegance  is  like  the  governor  of  an  engine,  regulating 
it  and  making  it  run  smoothly.  Elegance  has  to  do 
with  "the  fitness  of  things."  It  is  the  personification 
of  the  judgment  and  good  taste  of  the  writer,  keeping 
him  safely  within  bounds;  preventing  wild  and  un- 
controlled outbursts;  keeping  him  sane;  giving  him 
poise.    No  writer  can  afford  to  ignore  elegance. 

Elegance  demands  that  adaptation  of  language  to 
thought  which  makes  us  feel  that  words  have  done 
"their  perfect  work,"  so  that  we  are  pleased.  Brutus 
used  such  words  before  the  mob  as  might  have  pleased 
the  senate,  but  were  beyond  the  comprehension  of  the 
mob.  Antony  adapted  his  words  to  his  subject,  to  the 
occasion,  and  to  his  audience.  From  the  viewpoint  of 
adaptation  and  fitness,  Brutus'  speech  lacked  elegance, 
while  Antony's  possessed  it.  In  general,  elegance  is 
opposed  to  all  ungrammatical,  slipshod  speech  or  writ- 
ing; to  slang;  to  all  improprieties  and  barbarisms,  and 
to  too  many  colloquialisms.  In  general,  elegance  .dic- 
tates a  very  different  kind  of  language  for  the  sermon 
and  the  popular  address;  for  the  lecture  before  a  cul- 
tured audience  and  the  political  speech.  And  yet,  the 
law  of  fitness  would  demand  that  the  Bowery  Mission 
talk  should  be  very  different  from  the  Fifth  Avenue 


DICTION  87 

church  sermon.  This  book  is  addressed  to  pupils  of 
high  school  and  college  age,  boys  and  girls  of  at  least 
average  intelligence,  and  a  willingness  to  learn  the  prin- 
ciples of  composition.  The  purpose  of  the  writer  has 
been  to  make  the  style  of  the  book  appropriate  for 
such  pupils;  not  for  eighth-grade  pupils.  To  be  ap- 
propriate for  the  reader  words  must  not  be  above  him, 
nor  beneath  him;  young  children  should  not  be  ad- 
dressed as  adults,  nor  adults  as  young  children.  Simple 
subjects  demand  simple  words;  profound  subjects  re- 
quire words  in  keeping  with  their  character.  Mr. 
Micawber,  with  his  flowery  words  and  stilted  speech 
for  all  occasions,  generally  revealed  what  elegance  is 
not.  In  this  connection  the  fact  that  fine  writing  is 
not  tolerated  by  the  principle  of  elegance  is  evident. 
Fine  writing  is  as  much  a  violation  of  elegance  as  is 
the  use  of  slang.  Display  of  any  kind  is  as  offensive 
to  good  taste  when  it  is  used  in  language  as  when  it 
is  seen  in  dress.  In  the  use  of  figures  of  speech  this  is 
especially  important.  Clearness,  force,  and  elegance 
are  all  aided  by  such  figures  as  suggest  themselves 
naturally;  far-fetched,  overostentatious,  flowery  fig- 
ures too  easily  lend  themselves  to  grotesque  effects. 

Dryden's  words  are  to  the  point:  "When  men  affect 
a  virtue  which  they  cannot  reach  they  fall  into  a  vice 
which  bears  the  nearest  resemblance  to  it.  Thus  an 
injudicious  poet  who  aims  at  loftiness  runs  easily  into 
the  swelling,  puffy  style,  because  it  looks  like  greatness. ft 

Elegance  is  an  aid  to  both  clearness  and  force  in  the 
interest  of  economy  in  words,  not  from  an  economical 


88  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

point  of  view,  but  from  the  artistic.  Verbosity,  tau- 
tology, and  redundancy  are  as  aesthetically  displeasing 
as  they  are  economically  wasteful.  To  make  one  word 
serve  where  you  are  tempted  to  use  two  is  in  the  in- 
terest of  all  good  qualities  of  composition.  "  Brevity 
is  the  soul  of  wit";  it  is  more,  it  is  the  secret  of  effec- 
tiveness in  all  writing  and  speaking.  "Be  brief,  be 
l>rief,  but  not  too  brief,"  is  another  good  maxim.  Be 
as  concise  as  clearness  will  permit.  Avoid  a  "  fatal 
fluency";  avoid,  at  the  same  time,  such  a  lazy  or 
miserly  hoarding  of  words  as  indicates,  or  seems  to 
indicate,  poverty  of  thought.  Remember  that  economy 
means  not  too  few  and  not  too  many  words,  but  just 
enough. 

The  evil  effect  of  ignoring  the  law  of  economy  in 
words  is  clearly  shown  in  the  following  remark  of  a 
debater  concerning  his  opponent.  He  said,  "The  gen- 
tleman of  the  affirmative  is  evidently  carried  away 
with  the  exuberance  of  his  own  verbosity."  It  was  effec- 
tive. The  debater  referred  to  was  the  only  one  so 
carried  away;  his  thought  was  all  too  meager  for  such 
expression  and  his  wordiness  did  not  conceal  but  did 
reveal  the  fact. 

Caution  must,  of  course,  be  used  to  discriminate  be- 
tween wrong  kinds  of  repetition  and  justifiable  repe- 
tition for  rhetorical  effect.1 

Euphonious  Words.  Closely  related  to  the  repeti- 
tion of  ideas  in  unrhetorical  ways  is  the  repetition  of 
similar  sounds  and  the  using  of  any  words  offensive  to 

1  See  example  of  elegance,  page  37. 


DICTION  89 

the  ear.  Readers  are  justly  exacting  about  this,  and 
it  is  therefore  incumbent  upon  the  writer  and  the 
speaker  to  cultivate  verbal  harmony.  Such  expressions 
as  the  following  are  violations  of  elegance  because  they 
are  disagreeable  word  combinations. 

"Teach  each  hollow  grove  to  sound  his  love." 
"Peter  Piper  picked  a  peck  of  pickled  peppers." 
"He  came  near  missing  seeing  you." 

In  the  first  quotation  " teach  each"  gives  a  disagree- 
able conjunction  of  similar  sounds;  the  second  illus- 
trates the  unpleasant  effect  of  too  much  alliteration 
and  also  another  thing  that  should  be  avoided,  a  series 
of  words  hard  to  enunciate;  the  third  shows  how  the 
principle  of  euphony  is  violated  by  the  repetition  of  the 
same  endings. 

To  sum  up,  avoid  the  needless  and  unpleasant  repe- 
tition of  similar  sounds,  especially  sibilant  sounds,  the 
long  "u"  sound,  and  such  endings  as  ing,  ness,  Hon,  ity, 
and  rhyming  words.  All  harsh  combinations  of  sounds 
attract  attention  to  themselves  and  so  defeat  the  pur- 
pose of  the  writer.  Avoid  them.  Study  such  literature 
as  that  of  Burke,  Ruskin,  van  Dyke,  and  others,  espe- 
cially the  best  poets,  to  appreciate  the  value  of  the 
musical  sounds  of  agreeable  word  combinations.  The 
cultivation  of  good  taste  includes  the  ability  to  detect 
what  is  pleasing  to  the  ear. 

The  right  word  is  the  word  that  expresses  the  writer's 
idea  clearly,  satisfying  the  mind;  forcefully,  arousing 
his  interest  through  stirring  his  feelings ;  and  elegantly, 
adapting  itself  to  the  subject,  the  occasion,  and  the 


90  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

one  addressed,  so  as  to  be  pleasing  to  his  taste,  which 
demands  fitness  and  propriety.  While  securing  the 
three  rhetorical  qualities — clearness,  force,  and  elegance 
— the  writer  also  avoids  the  errors  of  using  too  few  or 
too  many  words;  too  new  or  too  old  words ;  hackneyed 
words,  harsh  words,  grandiloquent  words,  and  all  words 
which  one  might  be  tempted  to  use  for  their  own  sake. 

We  have  seen  the  need  of  an  ample  supply  of  words, 
and  we  have  pointed  out  how  to  secure  it  through 
reading  and  the  use  of  an  adequate  dictionary;  we  have 
shown  what  good  usage  is  and  how  to  detect  violations 
of  it;  and  we  have  shown  how,  when  one  has  a  large 
vocabulary,  he  must  use  it  according  to  the  funda- 
mental principles  of  denotation  and  connotation,  so  as 
to  stand  the  tests  of  the  great  rhetorical  qualities  of 
composition,  clearness,  force,  and  elegance,  and  result 
in  a  finished  product  of  effective  expression  in  so  far  as 
that  depends  upon  good  diction. 

As  a  final  word  of  advice  and  as  an  example  to  fol- 
low, we  close  this  chapter  with  the  words  of  one  who 
worked  hard  and  long  to  acquire  a  good  vocabulary, 
and  succeeded,  Robert  Louis  Stevenson: 

"All  through  my  boyhood  and  youth  I  was 
known  and  pointed  out  for  the  pattern  of  an 
idler  >  and  yet  I  was  always  busy  on  my  own 
private  end,  which  was  to  learn  to  write.  I 
kept  always  two  books  in  my  pocket,  one  to 
read  and  one  to  write  in.  As  I  walked  my 
mind  was  busy  fitting  what  I  saw  with  appro- 
priate words;   when  I  sat  by  the  roadside  I 


DICTION  91 

would  either  read,  or  a  pencil  and  a  penny  ver- 
sion book  would  be  in  my  hand  to  note  down 
the  features  of  the  scene  or  commemorate 
some  halting  stanzas.  Thus  I  lived  with 
words. 

"And  what  I  thus  wrote  was  for  no  ulterior 
use;  it  was  written  consciously  for  practice. 
It  was  not  so  much  that  I  wished  to  be  an 
author  (though  I  wished  that,  too)  as  that  I 
had  vowed  that  I  would  learn  to  write.  That 
was  a  proficiency  that  tempted  me,  and  I  prac- 
ticed to  acquire  it  as  men  learn  to  whittle,  in 
a  wager  with  myself.  Description  was  the 
principal  field  of  my  exercise;  for  to  anyone 
with  senses  there  is  always  something  worth 
describing,  and  town  and  country  are  but  one 
continuous  subject.  .  .  .  Whenever  I  read  a 
book  or  a  passage  that  particularly  pleased  me, 
in  which  a  thing  was  said  or  an  effect  rendered 
with  propriety,  in  which  there  was  either  some 
conspicuous  force  or  some  happy  distinction 
in  the  style,  I  must  sit  down  at  once  and  set 
myself  to  ape  that  quality.  I  was  unsuccess- 
ful, and  I  knew  it,  and  tried  again,  and  was 
again  unsuccessful,  and  always  unsuccessful; 
but  at  least  in  these  vain  bouts  I  got  some 
practice  in  rhythm,  in  harmony,  in  construc- 
tion, and  the  coordination  of  parts. 

"That,  like  it  or  not,  is  the  way  to  learn  to 
write ;  whether  I  have  profited  or  not,  that  is 
the  way.  It  was  so  Keats  learned,  and  there 
never  was  a  finer  temperament  for  literature 
than  Keats' s. 

"It  is  the  great  point  of  these  imitations 
that  there  still  shines,  beyond  the  student's 


92  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

reach,  his  inimitable  model.  Let  him  try  as 
he  please,  he  is  still  sure  of  failure;  and  it  is  an 
old  and  very  true  saying  that  failure  is  the 
only  highroad  to  success." 

Suggestions  and  Exercises  in  Diction 

1.  By  way  of  warning,  study  your  own  work  to  discover  any 
possible  barbarisms,  or  words  not  at  present  in  the  language;  any 
improprieties,  or  words  that  are  used  in  a  wrong  sense;  or  any 
solecisms,  or  errors  in  grammar.  In  this  connection  it  will  be 
helpful  to  consult  the  list  of  words  often  confused.  When  in  doubt 
as  to  the  use  of  any  word,  consult  a  good  dictionary  or  a  good  book 
of  synonyms,  or  both. 

2.  When  you  are  satisfied  that  your  work  is  free  from  positive 
errors,  look  it  over  again  to  test  your  diction  for  exactness  or  pre- 
cision. Ask  yourself  concerning  each  noun,  verb,  adjective,  and 
adverb,  especially  if  it  conveys  exactly  the  meaning  you  wish  it 
to  express,  if  it  says  too  little  or  too  much;  then,  with  the  aid  of  a 
book  of  synonyms,  change  your  faulty  words  to  better  ones  which 
convey  your  precise  meaning,  even  the  most  delicate  shade  of 
meaning  if  you  are  dealing  with  matters  which  require  fine  shading. 

3.  Read  your  theme  again  to  test  it  for  euphony  and  correct  all 
harsh  expressions  and  unmusical  combinations  of  sounds. 

4.  Test  your  work  for  repetitions  of  the  same  words  in  too  close 
proximity  and  for  the  presence  of  any  unnecessary  words  and 
redundancies  of  expression. 

5.  Finally,  test  for  idioms.  Remember  that  the  use  of  good  and 
accepted  idioms  gives  a  greater  vivacity  to  expression  than  results 
when  one  confines  himself  to  rigidly  grammatical  language. 

6.  To  increase  your  vocabulary,  read  any  article  from  a  current 
magazine,  noting  down  all  the  words  whose  meaning  is  not  perfectly 
clear  to  you.  Look  them  up  in  a  good  dictionary;  make  them 
your  own  and  they  will  not  bother  you  again.  They  will  serve 
you  instead.  Seek  to  acquire  the  habit  of  mastering  all  trouble- 
some words  at  once  and  the  time  will  soon  come  when  your  word 
troubles  will  be  practically  over. 


CHAPTER  IV 
THE  PARAGRAPH 

The  Necessity  for  Paragraphs.  The  paragraph  is  a 
comparatively  recent  invention  whose  purpose  is  to  aid 
the  reader  to  comprehend  the  writer  readily,  and  to 
aid  the  writer  so  to  divide  his  subject  that  it  may  be 
more  easily  understood.  In  a  very  real  sense  the  para- 
graph is  a  part  of  punctuation,  since  it  marks  a  more 
complete  stop  than  the  period.  It  might  be  said  to  indi- 
cate a  group  of  periods.  It  helps  the  writer  not  only  to 
divide  and  subdivide  his  subject,  but  to  analyze  and  to 
organize  his  thought.  We  may  define  the  paragraph 
as  A  Small  Organized  Division  of  a  Composition,  Pos- 
sessing the  Characteristics  of  a  Complete  Composition. 
That  is,  it  must  have  a  topic,  expressed  or  readily  in- 
ferred, and  that  topic  must  be  sufficiently  developed 
by  assembling  sufficient  details  and  by  arranging  them 
according  to  the  principles  of  unity,  coherence,  and 
emphasis.  In  this  way  only  can  a  complicated  line  of 
thought  be  made  clear  and  interesting.  The  paragraph 
is  the  unit  of  the  whole  composition. 

The  Length  of  Paragraphs.  Paragraphs  may,  of 
course,  be  of  various  lengths,  and  the  actual  number 
of  words  they  contain  is  not  of  great  importance.  Some 
writers,  like  John  Richard  Green,,  use  paragraphs  of 


94  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

over  thirteen  hundred  words,  which  would  make  from 
three  to  four  ordinary  pages.  Although  his  paragraphs 
are  perfect  in  structure,  they  are  detrimental  to  interest 
and  make  hard  reading.  The  ordinary  reader  does  not 
like  to  have  to  read  four  pages  without  a  pause.  It  is 
tiring  to  the  eyes  and  often  confusing  to  one's  thinking. 
Common  sense  and  usage  have  combined  to  set  the 
limit  of  ordinary  paragraphs  between  one  hundred  and 
four  hundred  words  to  avoid  the  danger  of  monotonous 
frequency  of  pauses  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other 
hand,  to  steer  clear  of  the  equally  great  danger  of 
tempting  the  reader  to  lapse  into  inattention  through 
lack  of  interest.  The  desire  to  make  paragraphs  of  a 
given  length  should  not,  however,  induce  one  to  become 
mechanical. 

What  really  determines  the  length  of  a  paragraph, 
while  keeping  between  the  limits  mentioned,  is  rhetoric. 
Careful  writers  plan  their  paragraphs  when  they  or- 
ganize their  material  in  accordance  with  its  bulk  and 
with  the  purpose  in  view.  If,  for  instance,  one  is  to 
write  upon  The  Benefits  of  Foreign  Travel,  a  composition 
of  between  six  and  seven  hundred  words,  he  might 
plan  four  paragraphs:  a  brief  one  devoted  to  explana- 
tion of  what  he  meant  by  foreign  travel,  and  three  to 
develop  the  three  points  he  wants  to  make  and  for  which 
he  has  the  suitable  material.  According  to  the  law  of 
proportion  and  emphasis  he  would  estimate  which  point 
is  the  most  important  and  plan  to  reserve  it  for  the  last 
and  to  develop  it  most  fully,  say  to  the  extent  of  two 
hundred  and  fifty  words.    The  other  two  points  would 


# 

THE  PARAGRAPH  95 

be  arranged  in  a  climactic  order,  determined  by  the 
same  law.  These  might  contain  approximately  two 
hundred,  and  one  hundred  and  fifty  words,  respectively. 
Then  each  paragraph  would  be  planned  separately  in 
accordance  with  the  laws  of  unity,  coherence,  and 
emphasis,  using  separate  cards  for  each  paragraph  plan. 
The  point  to  be  made  in  each  paragraph  would  furnish 
the  subtopic  to  be  developed  in  it.  The  plan  for  the 
composition  might  be  this:  Paragraph  1,  Introductory 
and  beginning, ' '  By  foreign  travel  we  mean,  et c . ' '  Para- 
graph 2,  "One  benefit  of  foreign  travel  is  that  it  broad- 
ens one's  views."  Paragraph  3,  " Another  benefit  of 
foreign  travel  is  its  great  educational  value."  Para- 
graph 4,  "A  third  benefit,  and  perhaps  the  best  of  all, 
is  that  foreign  travel  enables  the  traveler  to  make  true 
comparisons  between  countries  and  so  more  fully  ap- 
preciate his  own."  When  one  plans  in  some  such  way 
as  this  he  will  have  no  trouble  about  the  length  or  the 
number  of  paragraphs.  Both  will  be  naturally  deter- 
mined by  the  purpose,  the  material,  and  the  applica- 
tion of  the  principles  of  rhetoric. 

Avoid,  then,  looking  upon  paragraphs  as  mere  me- 
chanical and  artificial  divisions  of  a  composition  marked 
by  indentations  made  twice  upon  every  page. 

Avoid  making  such  short  subdivisions,  often  con- 
sisting of  a  single  sentence,  as  to  allow  no  chance  for 
development  and  to  result  in  isolated  generalizations 
not  paragraphs. 

Avoid  crowding  into  a  single  paragraph  a  mass  of 
incongruous  material,  as  in  the  quotation  from  Mark 


m 

96  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

Twain,  page  19,  for  such  material  cannot  possibly  be 
put  into  one  paragraph  and  give  one  definite  idea 
(unity) ;  such  material  cannot  be  arranged  so  that  the 
relation  between  each  part  and  those  near  it  will  be 
unmistakable  (coherence) ;  and  such  material,  because 
of  its  mixed  character,  because  of  its  total  lack  of  value, 
cannot  be  arranged  according  to  the  principle  of 
emphasis. 

Always  paragraph  in  accordance  with  common  sense 
and  the  principles  of  unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis, 
remembering  that  only  so  can  you  secure  clearness, 
force,  and  elegance,  and  make  a  creditable  finished 
product  of  effective  expression. 

The  Topic  Sentence.  In  dealing  with  single  sen- 
tences, provided  they  are  constructed  according  to  the 
rules  of  grammar  and  the  principles  of  rhetoric,  it  is 
comparatively  easy  to  make  one's  meaning  clear.  But 
when  several  sentences  are  brought  together  to  co- 
operate in  setting  forth  some  one  larger  idea,  confusion 
arises  unless  we  know  which  one  of  the  sentences  is 
chief  of  them  all  and  what  relation  all  the  rest  bear  to 
it.  This  confusion  is  avoided  by  having  a  topic  sen- 
tence. 

The  topic  sentence,  as  its  name  indicates,  contains 
the  topic  of  the  paragraph.  It  is  the  embryo  from  which 
the  paragraph  grows.  It  suggests  what  the  paragraph 
may  be;  what  it  will  become  in  the  hands  of  a  skillful 
writer;  it  is  the  master  sentence,  dominating  all  the 
rest. 

While  we  generally  speak  of  the  topic  sentence,  it 


THE  PARAGRAPH  97 

must  be  remembered  that  a  part  of  a  sentence,  some- 
times a  single  word,  is  often  sufficient  to  suggest  the 
title  of  a  paragraph,  especially  if  it  differentiates  some- 
thing specific  to  be  developed.  If,  for  instance,  one 
should  desire  to  relate  some  humorous  incident,  the 
topic  for  specific  treatment  is  not  the  whole  incident, 
but  its  humorous  qualities,  which  may  be  indicated,  or 
sufficiently  suggested,  by  a  single  word. 

The  position  of  the  topic  sentence,  or  the  sentence 
containing  the  topic,  is  usually  early  in  the  paragraph, 
but  it  may  be  anywhere  or  reserved  and  placed  at  the 
end  for  the  sake  of  emphasis.  If  it  is  so  evident  that  it 
may  be  readily  inferred,  it  need  not  be  expressed.  In 
fact,  to  express  a  topic  when  it  would  be  more  effective 
to  allow  the  reader  to  imagine  it,  not  only  results  in 
redundancy,  but  is  fatal  to  interest. 

The  need  of  the  topic  sentence,  from  the  viewpoint  of 
the  reader,  is  seen  in  the  fact  that  it  materially  aids 
him  in  getting  the  meaning  of  the  writer;  it  is  an  aid 
to  clearness  and  a  means  of  securing  interest.  From 
the  viewpoint  of  the  writer,  the  topic  sentence  is  the 
surest  guide  to  unity.  In  fact,  the  test  of  the  unity  of 
a  paragraph  lies  in  its  capability  of  being  reduced  to  a 
single  sentence. 

The  method  of  selecting  topic  sentences  is  not  arbi- 
trary; it  is  closely  connected  with  the  fundamental 
process  of  organizing  the  material  before  writing.  In 
all  careful  expository  writing  the  arranging  of  the  ma- 
terial according  to  an  outline  plan  also  furnishes  the 
necessary  topic  sentences.    The  titles  of  the  subdivi- 


98  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

sions  of  the  subject  become  the  topic  sentences  of  the 
paragraphs.  It  may  be,  however,  that  in  actual  writing 
the  phrasing  of  these  sentences  will  need  revision  for 
the  sake  of  conciseness.  Topic  sentences  should  be  as 
brief  as  is  consistent  with  clearness. 

In  narration,  where  details  are  generally  grouped  in 
the  order  of  time,  and  in  description,  where  they  are 
subject  to  space  conditions,  topic  sentences  are  com- 
monly omitted  in  writing,  though  they  may  have  been 
stated  in  the  plan  and  are  never  absent  from  the  mind 
of  the  writer. 

It  is  significant  that  almost  invariably  the  great 
writers,  who  are  noted  for  clearness,  employ  topic  sen- 
tences; and  a  study  of  almost  any  of  them  seems  to 
indicate  that  their  topic  sentences  have  already  served 
as  headings  in  their  original  outline  plans.  To  prove 
this  we  have  but  to  give  a  series  of  opening  sentences, 
used  as  topic  sentences,  from  a  few  careful  writers. 
First,  take  Macaulay's  Second  Speech  on  Copyright, 
where  a  series  of  consecutive  paragraphs  begin,  respec- 
tively, with  the  following  sentences: 

"Sir,  I  have  no  objection  to  the  principle  of 
my  noble  friend's  bill."  (Developed  into  a 
paragraph  of  over  four  hundred  words.) 

"The  present  state  of  the  law  is  this." 
(Paragraph  of  about  seventy-five  words.) 

"My  noble  friend  does  not  propose  to  make 
any  addition  to  the  term  of  twenty-eight  years." 
(Paragraph  of  about  seventy-five  words.) 

' '  My  plan  is  different. ' '  (Paragraph  of  about 
one  hundred  forty  words.) 


THE  PARAGRAPH  99 

"It  must  surely,  sir,  be  admitted  that  the 
protection  which  we  give  to  books  ought  to  be 
distributed  as  evenly  as  possible,  etc."  (Para- 
graph of  nine  hundred  words.) 

"  But  this  is  not  all.  My  noble  friend's  plan 
is  not  merely  to  institute  a  lottery,  etc."  (Topic 
in  italicized  words  of  second  sentence.  Para- 
graph of  seventy-five  words.) 

"Take  Shakespeare."  (Paragraph  of  sixty 
words.) 

"Take  Milton."  (Paragraph  of  ninety 
words.) 

"Let  us  pass  on  from  Milton  to  Dryden." 
(Paragraph  of  over  four  hundred  words.) 

"  Go  on  to  Burke."  (Paragraph  of  one  hun- 
dred twenty  words.) 

"And,  sir,  observe  that  I  am  not  selecting 
here  and  there  extraordinary  instances  in  order 
to  make  up  a  semblance  of  a  case.  I  am  taking 
the  greatest  names  of  our  literature  in  chrono- 
logical order." 

(Note  here  that  the  topic  is  the  idea  contained  in  two 
sentences.  This  paragraph  contains  about  four  hun- 
dred words.) 

These  eleven  topic  sentences  contain  about  one  hun- 
dred twenty-five  words  which  Macaulay  develops  into 
over  twenty-five  hundred  words,  and  yet,  as  we  read  the 
topic  sentences  alone  we  get  not  only  a  fair  conception 
of  Macaulay's  line  of  thought,  but  by  means  of  the  most 
natural  connotation  of  the  leading  words  in  the  topic 
sentences  we  get  also  the  gist  of  the  thought  itself.  If 
we  had  added  the  summarizing  sentences,  which  we 


100  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

have  not  yet  defined,  the  connection  between  the  con- 
tinuous paragraphs  would  be  more  clearly  seen  and 
much  more  of  the  argument  could  be  substantially 
constructed. 

Note  also  the  great  variety  in  the  paragraph  lengths, 
varying  from  sixty  to  nine  hundred  words,  and  showing 
the  author's  conception  of  the  relative  importance  of 
each  sub  topic. 

The  Repetition  of  the  Topic  Sentence:  Summarizing 
Sentence.  Where  the  thought  developed  in  a  para- 
graph is  complicated,  or  where  the  proof  necessary  to 
establish  the  truth  of  the  topic  sentence  is  extensive, 
it  is  customary,  with  the  best  writers,  to  repeat  the  topic 
sentence  at  the  end  of  the  paragraph  for  emphasis  and 
for  summary.  The  repetition,  however,  is  never  in  the 
same  words,  but  in  similar  words,  or  words  stating  the 
same  idea  with  variations. 

The  following  first  and  last  sentences  from  four  para- 
graphs of  John  Henry  Newman's  Literature  show  how 
such  a  master  repeated  his  topic  sentence  for  the  pur- 
pose of  emphasis  and  summary. 

"Here,  then,  in  the  first  place,  I  observe, 
Gentlemen,  that  Literature,  from  the  deriva- 
tion of  the  word,  implies  writing,  not  speak- 
ing. .  .  ." 

Then,  after  some  two  hundred  words  of  careful  de- 
velopment, we  find  this  summary: 

"We  use  the  terms  ' phraseology'  and  ' dic- 
tion' as  if  we  were  still  addressing  ourselves  to 
the  ear  J1 


THE  PARAGRAPH  101 

The  next  paragraph  begins  as  follows: 

"Now  I  insist  on  this,  because  it  shows  that 
speech,  and  therefore  literature,  which  is  its  per- 
manent record,  is  essentially  a  personal  work." 

This  paragraph  closes,  after  another  two  hundred 
words,  with  this  summarizing  sentence: 

"In  other  words,  Literature  expresses,  not  objective 
truth,  as  it  is  called,  but  subjective)  not  things,  but 
thoughts." 

The  next  paragraph,  of  about  six  hundred  words, 
begins  with  a  long  introductory  sentence  which  does 
not  contain  the  topic  sentence,  but  leads  to  it  in  the 
second  sentence: 

"Such  objects  become  the  matter  of  Science, 
and  words,  indeed,  are  used  to  express  them, 
but  such  words  are  rather  symbols  than  language, 
and  however  we  may  use,  and  however  we  may 
perpetuate  them  by  writing,  we  never  could 
make  any  kind  of  literature  out  of  them." 

At  the  end  of  this  long  paragraph  is  this  excellent 
summary,  gathering  into  brief  space  the  central  thought, 
the  master  thought,  of  the  whole  paragraph: 

"Science,  then,  has  to  do  with  things,  lit- 
erature with  thoughts;  science  is  universal, 
literature  is  personal;  science  uses  words 
merely  as  symbols,  but  literature  uses  lan- 
guage in  its  full  compass,  as  including  phrase- 
ology, idiom,  style,  composition,  rhythm,  elo- 
quence, and  whatever  other  properties  are  in- 
cluded in  it." 


102  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

The  fourth  paragraph  of  four  hundred  words  has  its 
topic  in  the  second  sentence,  and  is  a  further  develop- 
ment of  an  idea  already  briefly  stated  in  the  summariz- 
ing sentence  of  the  preceding  paragraph: 

"  Literature  is  the  personal  use  or  exercise 
of  language." 

And  the  final  sentence  is: 

"His  thought  and  feeling  are  personal,  and 
so  his  language  is  personal." 

The  topic  sentences  given  above  clearly  illustrate 
what  has  already  been  said  to  show  that  topic  sentences 
express  the  dominant  thought  of  the  paragraph,  and 
that  a  series  of  such  sentences  will  give  the  line  of 
thought  developed  in  the  whole  composition.  In  this 
case,  moreover,  where  the  summarizing  sentences  are 
also  given,  the  illustration  is  still  more  forceful  than  in 
that  from  Macaulay. 

Note  also  that  the  last  sentence  of  each  of  the  first 
three  paragraphs  quoted  from  Newman  contains  an 
idea  closely  related  with  the  topic  sentence  of  the  fol- 
lowing paragraph,  and  that  that  relation  is  expressed 
in  a  word  that  connects  the  two  paragraphs,  or,  as  it 
were,  dovetails  them  together.  For  instance,  "as  if 
we  were  still  addressing  the  ear  "  is  given  as  a  proof  of 
the  fact  that  the  writer  of  literature  must  be  personal. 
Newman  counts  that  very  important,  so  he  begins  the 
next  paragraph  with,  "Now  I  insist  on  this".  The 
word  "this"  dovetails  the  two  paragraphs  together, 
thus  showing  beyond  doubt  that  they  are  parts  of  a 


THE  PARAGRAPH  103 

larger  whole,  and  must  be  considered  together.  Its 
close  connection  is  further  emphasized  by  the  rest  of 
the  topic  sentence,  "  because  it  shows  that  speech  is 
essentially  a  personal  work."  Such  connecting  words 
as  "this"  are  called  transitional  words. 

Transitional  words  connect  sentences  within  the 
paragraph  for  the  sake  of  paragraph  coherence  and 
unity;  transitional  words  connect  sentences  in  related 
paragraphs  for  the  sake  of  unity  and  coherence  in  the 
whole  composition.  Any  words  may  serve  for  transi- 
tion, but  the  commonest  are  conjunctions  showing  logi- 
cal relations  and  pronouns,  as  in  the  case  cited  above. 
Easy  and  natural  transitions  are  the  mark  of  careful 
writers.  Find  other  illustrations  in  the  sentences 
quoted  from  Newman. 

Kinds  of  Paragraphs.  Having  considered  the  essen- 
tials of  paragraphs  in  general,  the  dominant  thought 
expressed  in  the  topic  sentence  and  furnishing  the  basis 
for  paragraph  development,  the  summarizing  sentence, 
and  the  matter  of  transition,  it  now  becomes  necessary 
to  classify  the  kinds  of  paragraphs  according  to  their 
uses.    There  are  five  kinds: 

The  Isolated  Paragraph.  This  is  also  called  the  in- 
dependent paragraph.  In  some  cases,  as  in  the  follow- 
ing cyclopedia  article,  it  is  the  whole  composition.  It 
is  not  a  full,  but  an  adequate  treatment,  for  the  purpose 
intended,  of  a  subject: 

"Guyot,  Arnold,  an  American  geographer; 
born  near  Neuchatel,  Switzerland,  September 
28,  1807;  he  was  the  colleague  of  Agassiz,  at 


104  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

Neuchatel,  in  1839-1848,  and  in  1848  accom- 
panied him  to  the  United  States.  In  1854  he 
was  appointed  Professor  of  Physical  Geogra- 
phy and  Geology  at  Princeton  College.  He 
had  the  management  of  the  meteorological 
department  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
where  he  more  than  once  delivered  courses  of 
lectures,  and  in  connection  with  which  he 
published  Meteorological  and  Physical  Tables. 
His  other  works  include  several  biographies, 
and  a  series  of  geographies  and  wall  maps 
which  are  in  general  use  in  American  schools. 
He  died  in  Princeton,  N.  J.;  February  8, 1884." 

Brief  news  items,  such  as  " personals,"  complete  in 
themselves,  frequently  are  composed  of  single  isolated 
paragraphs. 

Occasionally,  also,  we  find  isolated  or  independent 
paragraphs  forming  parts  of  compositions.  Some  writ- 
ers, like  George  Eliot,  begin  their  chapters  with  general 
statements,  having  in  them  a  truth  analogous  to  the 
theme  of  the  chapter,  but  without  any  vital  or  logical 
connection  with  it.     These  are  isolated  paragraphs. 

The  Related  Paragraph.  Related  paragraphs  are  so 
connected  that  they  co-operate  in  developing  a  subject 
too  extensive  to  be  adequately  treated  in  one  para- 
graph. They  deal  individually  with  the  smaller  sub- 
divisions into  which  writer  divides  his  whole  sub- 
ject for  the  sake  of  clearness.  Since  they  are  related  in 
thought  they  must  be  shown  to  be  related  to  each 
other  and  to  the  whole  composition,  by  proper  transi- 
tions.    (See  illustrations  from  Newman,  page  100.) 


THE  PARAGRAPH  105 

The  Introductory  Paragraph.  The  other  three  kinds 
of  paragraphs  are  related,  but  their  special  functions  so 
differentiate  them  as  to  render  separate  definition  ad- 
visable. The  introductory  paragraph  serves  to  open 
a  subject  by  getting  the  attention  of  the  reader  and 
giving  sufficient  intimation  of  what  is  to  follow,  to 
arouse  interest.  Walt  Whitman's  introduction  to  his 
The  Death  of  Thomas  Carlyle,  is  a  good  example  of  a 
brief  introductory  paragraph:  "And  so  the  flame  of 
the  lamp,  after  long  wasting  and  flickering,  has  gone 
out  entirely."  Another  is  that  of  Samuel  Taylor  Cole- 
ridge's .  The  Functions  of  the  Chorus  in  the  Greek  Tragic 
Drama:  "It  will  not  be  improper,  in  this  place,  to  make 
a  few  remarks  on  the  remarkable  character  and  func- 
tions of  the  chorus  in  the  Greek  tragic  drama." 

The  introductory  paragraph  should  introduce,  but  do 
no  more.  It  should  be  brief  and  as  concise  as  is  com- 
patible with  clearness. 

The  Transitional  Paragraph.  When  the  transition  is 
of  unusual  importance,  or  too  complicated  to  be  ex- 
pressed in  a  single  word  or  phrase,  the  only  way  left  is 
to  make  the  transition  by  means  of  a  short  paragraph. 
Burke,  one  of  the  clearest  thinkers,  and  hence  clearest 
writers,  frequently  uses  such  transitions.  A  single  ex- 
ample will  suffice: 

"The  question  now,  on  all  this  accumulated 
matter,  is — whether  you  will  choose  to  abide 
by  a  profitable  experience  or  a  mischievous 
theory;  whether  you  choose  to  build  upon 
imagination,  or  fact;  whether  you  prefer  en- 


106  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

joyment,  or  hope,  satisfaction  in  your  subjects, 
or  discontent." 

The  Summarizing  Paragraph.  Like  the  introductory 
paragraph,  the  summarizing  one  should  be  brief,  con- 
cise, and  devoted  to  a  single  subject  only;  a  summary 
of  the  line  of  thought  recapitulated  and  a  statement  of 
sufficient  effects  of  what  has  gone  before  to  bring  the 
subject  to  a  suitable  and  definite  close.  Note  the  fol- 
lowing closing  of  De  Quincey's  Vision  of  Sudden  Death : 

"The  moments  were  numbered;  the  strife 
was  finished;  the  vision  was  closed.  In  the 
twinkling  of  an  eye  our  flying  horses  had  car- 
ried us  to  the  termination  of  the  umbrageous 
aisle;  at  right  angles  we  wheeled  into  our 
former  direction;  the  turn  of  the  road  carried 
the  scene  out  of  my  eyes  in  an  instant,  and 
swept  it  into  my  dreams  forever." 

A  summarizing  paragraph  is  often  found  necessary 
to  mark  important  stages  while  developing  an  intricate 
subject,  to  review  what  has  been  accomplished  up  to 
a  certain  point,  and  to  emphasize  it.  Here  again  we 
find  Burke,  our  best  model.  The  first  example  is  from 
his  famous  speech  at  The  Trial  of  Warren  Hastings,  and 
marks  one  of  his  summaries  of  a  part  of  the  speech : 

"I  have  here  spoken  only  of  the  beginning 
of  a  great  notorious  system  of  corruption, 
which  branched  out  so  many  ways,  and  into 
such  a  variety  of  abuses,  and  has  afflicted  that 
kingdom  with  such  horrible  evils  from  that 
day  to  this  that  I  will  venture  to  say  it  will 
make  one  of  the  greatest,  weightiest,  and  most 


THE  PARAGRAPH  107 

material  parts  of  the  charge  that  is  now  before 
you ;  as  I  believe  I  need  not  tell  your  lordships 
that  an  attempt  to  set  up  the  whole  landed 
interest  of  a  kingdom  to  auction  must  be  at- 
tended, not  only  in  that  act,  but  every  conse- 
quential act,  with  most  grievous  and  terrible 
consequences." 

Burke  sometimes  combined  summary  with  transi- 
tion. He  went  even  further;  he  combined  summary, 
transition,  and  introduction,  in  one  short  paragraph, 
so  complete  were  his  transitions,  so  perfectly  do  they 
make  the  reader  look  back  upon  what  has  already  been 
said,  and  forward  to  what  is  about  to  be  said. 

"  These,  Sir,  are  my  reasons  for  not  enter- 
taining that  high  opinion  of  untried  force  by 
which  many  gentlemen,  for  whose  sentiments 
in  other  particulars  I  have  great  respect,  seem 
to  be  so  greatly  captivated.  But  there  is  still 
behind  a  third  consideration  concerning  this 
object,  which  serves  to  determine  my  opinion 
on  the  sort  of  policy  which  ought  to  be  pur- 
sued in  the  management  of  America,  even  more 
than  its  population  and  its  commerce :  I  mean 
its  temper  and  character" 

— Conciliation  Speech. 

The  word  " these"  refers  directly  to  the  four  argu- 
ments against  force  just  given  and  brings  in  the  sum- 
mary; then  comes  the  transition;  while  the  last  clause 
gives  the  introduction  for  the  next  argument. 

Paragraph  Development.  The  developed  paragraph 
is  the  one  that  is  complete  enough  to  make  it  fully  serve 
its  purpose.     In  simple  narration,  where  the  purpose 


108  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

does  not  include  explaining  difficult  situations,  and 
where  the  events  follow  one  another  in  the  natural 
order  and  topic  sentences  are  unnecessary,  but  little 
development  is  required,  and  short  paragraphs  suffice. 
This  is  especially  noticeable  where  the  narrative  con- 
sists largely  of  conversation,  as  in  the  following  lines 
from  Oliver  Twist: 

"'Clear  the  office!'  cried  the  magistrate. 
'Officers,  do  you  hear!    Clear  the  office!'" 

"The  mandate  was  obeyed,  and  the  indig- 
nant Mr.  Brownlow  was  conveyed  out,  with 
the  book  in  one  hand  and  the  bamboo  cane  in 
the  other,  in  a  perfect  frenzy  of  rage  and  de- 
fiance. He  reached  the  yard,  and  it  vanished 
in  a  moment.  Little  Oliver  Twist  lay  on  his 
back  on  the  pavement,  with  his  shirt  unbut- 
toned and  his  temples  bathed  with  water;  his 
face  a  deadly  white,  and  a  cold  trembling  con- 
vulsing his  whole  frame. 

"'Poor  boy,  poor  boy!'  said  Mr.  Brownlow, 
bending  over  him.  'Call  a  coach,  somebody, 
pray,  directly.'" 

"A  coach  was  obtained,  and  Oliver,  having 
been  carefully  laid  in  on  one  seat,  the  old  gen- 
tleman got  in  and  sat  himself  on  the  other. 

"'May  I  accompany  you?'  said  the  book- 
stall keeper,  looking  in. 

"'Bless  me,  yes;  my  dear  friend,'  said  Mr. 
Brownlow,  quickly.  'I  forgot  you.  Dear, 
dear!  I  have  this  unhappy  book  still !  Jump 
in.    Poor  fellow!    There  is  no  time  to  lose.' " 

"The  bookstall  keeper  got  into  the  coach, 
and  away  they  drove." 


THE  PARAGRAPH  109 

Such,  and  most  narrative  paragraphs,  cannot  be  said  to 
be  developed,  and  yet  they  serve  their  purpose  adequately. 

When  we  consider  exposition,  on  the  other  hand, 
where  matters  of  some  difficulty  must  be  made  clear 
and  intelligible  to  those  who,  presumably,  do  not 
already  understand  them,  the  case  is  very  different. 
Topic  sentences  must  almost  invariably  be  used  and 
the  paragraphs  must  be  fully  developed.  The  typical 
paragraph,  then,  is  the  expository. 

The  following  is  a  typical  paragraph  of  exposition : 

"The  great  charm  of  Steele's  writing  is  his 
naturalness.  He  wrote  so  quickly  and  so  care- 
lessly that  he  was  forced  to  make  the  reader 
his  confidant,  and  had  not  time  to  deceive 
him.  He  had  a  small  share  of  book  learning, 
but  a  vast  acquaintance  with  the  world.  He 
had  known  men  and  taverns.  He  had  lived 
with  gunsmen,  with  troopers,  with  gentlemen 
ushers  of  the  court,  with  men  and  women  of 
fashion,  with  authors  and  wits,  with  the  inti- 
mates of  sponging  houses,  and  with  the  fre- 
quenters of  all  the  clubs  and  coffee  houses  in 
the  town.  He  was  liked  in  all  company  be- 
cause he  liked  it;  and  you  liked  to  see  his 
enjoyment  as  you  liked  to  see  the  glee  of  a 
boxful  of  children  at  the  pantomime.  He  was 
not  of  those  lonely  ones  of  the  earth  whose 
greatness  obliged  them  to  be  solitary;  on  the 
contrary,  he  was  admired,  I  think,  more  than 
any  other  man  who  ever  wrote,  and,  full  of 
hearty  applause  and  sympathy,  he  wins  upon 
you  by  calling  you  to  share  his  delight  and  good 


110  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

humor.     His  laugh  rings  through  the  whole 
house.     He  must  have  been  invaluable  at  a 
A  'tragedy,  and  have  cried  as  much  as  the  most 
tender  young  lady  in  the  boxes. " 
■■    —Thackeray:  English  Humorists  of  the  Eighteenth  Century 

The  above  paragraph  is  typical,  not  only  in  being 
fully  developed,  but  in  being  developed  by  a  combina- 
tion of  three  methods — details,  cause  and  effect,  and 
comparison  and  contrast.  For  the  sake  of  study  we 
must  consider  the  various  methods  separately,  though 
most  great  writers  refuse  to  limit  themselves  to  any 
one  method,  but  prefer  a  combination. 

Development  is  such  a  large  and  such  a  general  term 
that  it  means  but  little  until  we  consider  the  various 
kinds  of  paragraph  development.  Then  it  is  easily 
comprehensible. 

These  five  methods  are  sufficiently  inclusive  for  all 
practical  purposes,  and  at  the  same  time  sufficiently 
dissimilar  to  be  easily  distinguished  and  to  give  variety 
of  effect.    They  are: 

1.  By  giving  details 

2.  By  giving  examples  or  illustrations,  general  or 
specific 

3.  By  repetition  of  the  idea  of  the  topic  sentence  in 
a  similar  but  slightly  different  manner 

4.  By  comparison  and  contrast 

5.  By  giving  causes  or  effects 

When  the  topic  sentence  represents  an  effect  the 
paragraph  may  be  developed  by  giving  the  causes 
which  produced  the  effect;    when  the  topic  sentence 


4& 


THE  PARAGRAPH  111 

states  a  cause  the  paragraph  may  be  developed  by 
stating  the  results  which  follow  it.  Closely  connected 
with  this  method  is  that  of  giving  proofs  of  the  truth 
or  falsity  of  the  statement  made  in  the  topic  sentence. 

In  dealing  with  the  matter  of  paragraph  development 
we  must  again  organize  our  material.  In  the  chapter 
on  Getting  Ready  to  Write  we  saw  how  necessary  it  is 
to  plan  for  the  composition  as  a  whole;  here  we  plan 
for  the  individual  paragraphs.  To  make  a  good,  whole 
composition,  we  must  make  each  separate  paragraph 
do  its  full  part.  In  the  general  planning  we  do  not  have 
completed  paragraphs  in  mind,  but  only  topics  for 
them.  In  paragraph  planning  we  must  keep  in  mind 
both  the  paragraph  itself  and  the  whole  composition: 
the  paragraph,  that  we  may  make  it  grow,  or  develop, 
so  as  to  be  complete  in  itself;  the  whole  composition, 
that  we  may  regulate  that  growth,  or  development,  and 
keep  it  of  proper  proportion  relative  to  other  para- 
graphs and  to  the  whole,  and  that  we  may  secure  suffi- 
cient variety  of  structure. 

In  organizing  material  for  a  paragraph  we  do  not  see 
how  much  of  it  we  may  crowd  in,  but  what  and  how 
much  is  absolutely  essential  for  adequate  development 
of  the  topic  in  fulfilling  its  part  of  the  purpose  of  the 
whole  composition.  There  is  such  a  thing  as  over- 
development of  an  individual  paragraph.  This  occurs 
whenever  development  is  carried  beyond  the  point  nec- 
essary for  clearness.  Such  errors  tend  to  obscurity, 
and  even  to  incoherence,  and  should  be  as  carefully 
guarded  against  as  insufficient  development. 


112  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

What  Method  to  Use.  Three  things  aid  in  deter- 
mining which  of  the  methods  of  paragraph  development 
to  use:  the  form  of  the  topic  sentence,  the  material 
available  and  suitable,  and  the  purpose. 

The  topic  sentence  should  always  be  so  stated  as  to 
challenge  attention,  to  promise  something  to  come  to 
call  for  elaboration,  to  invite  to  fuller  explanation.  It 
should  be  characterized  by  such  incompleteness  as  to 
make  the  reader  expect  completeness  and  to  look  for 
it.  It  is  clear,  then,  that  not  every  sentence  is  suitable 
for  a  topic  sentence.  No  sentence  that  is  complete  in 
itself  and  is  wholly  without  connotation  or  suggestion, 
will  make  a  good  topic  sentence.  Many  of  the  diffi- 
culties experienced  in  writing  would  disappear  if  this 
fact  were  kept  in  mind.  Young  writers  would  cease 
trying  to  make  that  grow  which  is  already  fully  grownr 
cease  developing  the  developed,  cease  trying  to  do  the 
impossible.  They  would  shape  topic  sentences  so  as  to 
require  development,  and  hence  to  aid  in  the  process 
of  development. 

The  statement  of  the  topic  sentence  is  often  sufficient 
to  determine  which  of  the  methods  to  use.  Note  the 
following : 

"The  very  sound  of  a  lady's  library  gave  me  a  great 
curiosity  to  see  it,"  says  Addison,  beginning  one  of  the 
Spectator  Papers.  Curiosity  to  see  a  lady's  library  is 
his  topic.  As  we  read  it  our  curiosity,  too,  is  aroused. 
Manifestly  such  a  topic  cannot  be  developed  by  repeti- 
tion, by  cause  and  effect,  by  comparison  and  contrast. 
There  are  left  the  methods  by  illustration  and  by  de- 


THE  PARAGRAPH  113 

tails  or  particulars.  Addison  wisely  chose  the  latter. 
It  is  the  natural  method  of  development. 

When  Macaulay  begins  a  paragraph  with  the  follow- 
ing sentence  we  know  that  he  will  develop  it  by  means 
of  comparison,  for  that  method  alone  suggests  itself 
because  of  the  form  of  the  topic  sentence:  "The  effect 
of  historical  reading  is  analogous,  in  many  respects,  to 
that  produced  by  foreign  travel." 

When  Macaulay  begins  another  paragraph  with  these 
words,  "The  spirits  of  Milton  are  unlike  those  of  almost 
all  other  writers,"  it  is  evident  that  the  most  natural 
method  of  paragraph  development  is  by  obverse  state- 
ment or  a  form  of  contrast. 

When  Newman  begins  with  this  sentence,  "Boys  are 
always  more  or  less  inaccurate,  and  too  many,  or  rather 
the  majority  of  them,  remain  boys  all  their  lives," 
among  the  possible  methods  of  development  that  of 
examples  or  illustrations  suggests  itself  to  us  as  it  did 
to  Newman. 

Burke's  famous  paragraph  beginning,  "The  proposi- 
tion is  peace,"  is  a  good  example  of  development  by 
definition  and  by  repetition  as  well  as  by  obverse  state- 
ment. He  defines  what  he  means,  both  negatively  and 
positively,  by  a  series  of  definitions,  each  of  which  helps 
to  clarify  his  topic  sentence.  Repetition  is  the  natural 
and  effective  method  wherever  the  topic  sentence  is  in 
the  form  of  a  definition,  epigram,  proverb,  or  any  sim- 
ple, terse  statement,  which  needs  only  restatement 
with  variations  to  gain  sufficient  clearness  and  force. 

Burke's  topic  sentence,  "First,  the  people  of  the  col- 


114  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

onies  are  descendants  of  Englishmen,"  is  evidently  con- 
sidered, as  the  context  shows,  as  a  cause.  How  natural, 
then,  to  give  the  results,  as  Burke  does  in  a  paragraph 
nearly  two  pages  long. 

In  general,  then,  it  may  be  said  that  the  form  of  the 
topic  sentence  frequently  indicates  the  most  natural 
and  most  effective  method  of  development  to  use. 
Statements  of  things  considered  as  made  up  of  parts 
or  details,  call  for  details  or  particulars;  statements 
mentioning  or  suggesting  a  comparison,  a  contrast,  or 
an  analogy  demand  that  the  comparison  or  contrast 
be  given  in  detail ;  statements  setting  forth  the  supposed 
truth  or  falsity  about  anything,  call  for  proof  in  the 
form  of  authority  or  convincing  illustrations  or  exam- 
ples; statements  in  the  form  of  epigrams  are  best  de- 
veloped by  a  series  of  similar,  but  increasingly  illumi- 
nating, restatements;  and  statements  that  may  be  re- 
garded as  causes,  or  as  effects,  demand  the  method  of 
giving  effects  or  causes. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  one  desires  to  use  a  ceitain 
method,  he  should  be  careful  to  state  his  topic  so  as  to 
make  it  fit  that  method. 

The  second  determining  factor  in  regard  to  selecting 
the  best  method  of  development  is  the  available  mate- 
rial. It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  cut  the  garment  in 
accordance  with  the  cloth.  One  does  not  always  have 
all  the  material  he  wants,  and  he  may  not  be  able  to 
get  it.  Or  he  may  not  have  the  kind  he  wants,  or  he 
may  have  a  little  of  several  kinds.  As  a  result,  he  may 
have  to  confine  himself  to  some  particular  method,  or 


fli 


THE  PARAGRAPH  115 

he  may  have  to  use  a  combination  of  methods.  Where 
the  writer  has  ample  information  or  abundant  experi- 
ence such  difficulties  do  not  arise.  But  occasions  are 
common  where  both  information  and  experience  are 
limited  and  where  the  imagination  can  render  but 
meager  aid.  Then  he  must  make  the  most  of  what  he 
has  and  phrase  the  topic  sentence  suitably. 

For  instance,  if  a  reporter  were  assigned  to  "write 
up"  a  railroad  accident  concerning  which  only  meager 
reports  were  available,  he  could  not  give  details,  for 
there  are  none;  the  methods  of  illustration,  compari- 
son, and  contrast  are  out  of  the  question.  What  method 
shall  he  use?  Only  repetition  and  cause  and  effect  are 
left.  He  naturally  uses  both:  repetition,  to  " stretch" 
the  few  available  facts  into  the  semblance  of  a  " story," 
cause  and  effect,  because  the  public  wants  to  know 
them  in  the  briefest  possible  form,  and  because,  in 
part  at  least,  they  are  likely  to  be  included  among  the 
few  available  facts.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  in  such 
cases  the  imagination  is  drawn  upon  to  an  unwarranted 
extent.    And  the  reporter  gets  his  story. 

In  general,  when  one  has  limited  material  at  his  dis- 
posal, the  most  obvious  way  out  of  his  difficulty  is  to 
study  it  with  unusual  care  to  discover  the  most  effective 
way  to  express  it  by  a  combination  of  the  methods  of 
paragraph  development.  Where  possible,  however,  the 
embarrassment  caused  by  lack  of  material  should  be 
removed  by  further  study  of  the  subject  to  gain  suffi- 
cient material.  When  one  begins  to  write  he  frequently 
finds  his  facts  to  dwindle,  so  that  he  must  again  consult 


116  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

his  sources:  books  of  reference,  authorities,  such  as 
histories,  biographies,  works  of  science,  government  re- 
ports, and  the  like,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  sub- 
ject. Sometimes,  too,  he  will  find  it  necessary  to  visit 
places,  interview  people,  and  try  experiments,  to  gain 
first-hand  material  from  experience.  Then  most  diffi- 
culties vanish. 

When  there  is  an  abundance  of  material  its  nature 
will  often  suggest  the  best  method  of  paragraph  de- 
velopment to  use.  Where  the  material  consists  largely 
of  details  in  the  form  of  facts  about  the  subject,  the 
enumerating  of  the  best  and  most  striking  of  them,  in 
some  definite  order,  will  be  effective.  This  method, 
while  naturally  the  most  common  and  the  easiest  to 
use,  should  not  be  overused,  lest  it  become  monotonous. 

When  a  considerable  amount  of  the  material  may  be 
looked  upon  as  examples,  or  illustrations,  of  principles 
stated,  the  method  of  example  and  illustration  should 
be  used.  It  is  both  more  interesting  and  more  effective 
than  the  mere  enumeration  of  details. 

When  there  is  a  great  abundance  of  material,  when 
the  writer  knows  all  sides  of  his  subject  and  related 
subjects,  he  may  develop  some  of  his  paragraphs  by 
comparison  or  contrast  with  telling  effect,  because  com- 
parisons are  instructive  and  contrasts,  because  of  the 
element  of  rhetorical  force,  hold  interest.  Notice  the 
effect  of  the  following  use  of  contrast,  by  Burke: 

1  Compare  the  two.  This  I  offer  to  give  you 
is  plain  and  simple;  the  other,  full  of  perplexed 
and  intricate  mazes.    This  is  mild;  that  harsh. 


THE  PARAGRAPH  117 

This  is  found  by  experience  effectual  for  its 
purposes;  the  other  is  a  new  project.  This  is 
universal;  the  other  calculated  for  certain  col- 
onies only.  This  is  immediate  in  its  concilia- 
tory operation;  the  other  remote,  contingent, 
full  of  hazard.  Mine  is  what  becomes  the  dig- 
nity of  a  ruling  people — gratuitous,  uncondi- 
tional, and  not  held  out  as  a  matter  of  bargain 
and  sale." 

The  principal  kind  of  material  suitable  for  the  method 
of  development  by  giving  causes  and  effects,  is  that 
which  naturally  falls  into  the  category  of  effects.  (See 
page  10.) 

In  all  these  cases  the  topic  sentence  should  be  made 
to  suit  the  material. 

The  third  determining  factor  in  selecting  the  method 
of  paragraph  development  is  the  purpose  of  the  writer. 
It  is  the  most  important  of  all.  Where  the  purpose  is 
merely  to  give  information,  or  to  entertain,  giving  de- 
tails often  suffices.  If  the  purpose  includes,  as  it  gen- 
erally should,  the  arousing  and  holding  of  the  reader's 
attention  to  insure  his  receiving  the  information,  the 
method  of  giving  examples,  or  that  of  comparison  or 
contrast,  will  be  found  far  more  effective.  If  the  writ- 
er's purpose  is  to  convince,  repetition  may  be  effec- 
tively used  where  he  wants  to  " drive  home"  a  single 
truth  so  that  there  is  no  disputing  its  being  a  truth;  or 
he  may  use  the  method  of  giving  causes  or  effects  if  ac- 
tual, formal  proof  is  thought  necessary.    (See  page  126.) 

Here,  again,  state  the  topic  sentence  so  as  to  be  suit- 
able for  the  method  of  development  to  be  used. 


118  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

Paragraph  development  is  a  carefully  directed  process 
of  growth.  Whatever  skill  one  may  have  in  getting 
material  together,  he  is  not  a  writer  capable  of  making 
the  finished  product  of  effective  expression  until  he 
can  develop  paragraphs  completely  and  in  a  variety 
of  ways.  We  have  already  studied  the  theory  of  the 
paragraph  and  have  gone  into  detail  concerning  all  the 
essential  characteristics  of  the  paragraph,  the  topic 
sentence  and  the  methods  of  development.  To  sub- 
stantiate our  theory  we  now  turn  our  attention  to  the 
study  of  further  illustrations  from  the  writings  of  those 
who  have  become  masters  of  expression.  The  following 
examples,  illustrating  the  various  methods  of  para- 
graph development,  may  also  be  studied  with  reference 
to  the  use  of  the  topic  sentence  and  the  summarizing 
sentence.  Pupils  are  urged  to  study  other  models  be- 
sides these  here  given,  because  this  is  the  way  the  best 
writers  often  begin.  Stevenson  frankly  confessed  that 
he  studied  others  to  learn  their  methods. 

The  period  of  imitation  naturally  precedes  that  of 
independence  and  originality,  but  follows  the  gaining 
of  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  composition.  The 
three  great  stages  in  the  process  of  learning  to  write 
are:  first,  master  the  principles  of  composition  and 
rhetoric  as  applied  to  the  whole  composition  and  to 
its  parts,  especially  the  paragraph;  secondly,  study 
the  works  of  the  masters  to  observe  how  they  followed 
the  principles;  thirdly,  do  your  own  writing,  applying 
the  principles  you  have  learned,  and  under  the  inspira- 
tion and  guidance  of  the  masters.    Bring  literature  to 


THE  PARAGRAPH  119 

the  assistance  of  composition.  Practice  with  models 
before  you,  until  " practice  makes  perfect/'  when  you 
can  make  your  own  finished  product  of  effective  ex- 
pression without  the  aid  of  models.  It  is  a  long  process, 
but  it  is  the  only  one  that  will  assure  success. 

Learning  the  principles  and  studying  models  are  pre- 
liminary and  academic;  practicing  " never  a  day  with- 
out a  line"  is  the  work  of  a  lifetime. 

We  begin  the  list  of  model  paragraphs  by  citing  one 
developed,  by  giving  details  of  the  condensed  state- 
ment made  in  the  topic  sentence.  Giving  details  is  a 
simple  form  of  analysis,  subdividing  a  whole  into  the 
elements  which  compose  it,  and  doing  it  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  show  how  the  parts,  when  put  together, 
constitute  that  whole. 

Paragraph  Developed  by  Giving  Details 

It  is  difficult  in  a  short  summary  of  facts  to 
give  any  impression  of  the  influence  exercised 
on  the  mind  and  feelings  of  his  country  by 
Addison.  It  was  out  of  proportion  with  the 
mere  outcome  of  his  literary  genius.  It  was 
the  result  of  character  almost  more  than  of  in- 
tellect, of  goodness  and  reasonableness  almost 
more  than  of  wit.  His  qualities  of  mind,  how- 
ever, if  not  of  the  very  loftiest  order,  were  rela- 
tively harmonized  to  an  astonishing  degree,  so 
that  the  general  impression  of  Addison  is  of  a 
larger  man  than  the  close  contemplation  of 
any  one  side  of  his  genius  reveals  him  as  being. 
He  has  all  the  moral  ornaments  of  the  literary 
character;   as  a  writer  he  is  urbane,  cheerful, 


120  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

charming,  and  well  mannered  to  a  degree, 
which  has  scarcely  been  surpassed  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  world.  His  wit  is  as  penetrating 
as  a  perfume;  his  irony  presupposes  a  little 
circle  of  the  best  and  most  cultivated  listeners; 
his  fancy  is  so  well  tempered  by  judgment  and 
observation  that  it  passes  with  us  for  imagina- 
tion. We  delight  in  his  company  so  greatly 
that  we  do  not  pause  to  reflect  that  the  invent- 
or of  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley  and  Will  Honey- 
comb had  not  half  of  the  real  comic  force  of 
Farquhar  or  Vanbrugh,  nor  so  much  as  that 
of  the  flashing  wit  of  Congreve.  Human  na- 
ture, however,  is  superior  to  the  rules,  and 
Addison  stands  higher  than  those  more  orig- 
inal writers  by  merit  of  the  reasonableness,  the 
good  sense,  the  wholesome  humanity  that  ani- 
mate his  work.  He  is  classic,  while  they  are 
always  a  little  way  over  on  the  barbaric  side 
of  perfection. 

— History  of   English  Literature:    Eighteenth  Century, 
Edmund  Gossb 

In  this  paragraph,  developed  by  details,  note  first 
what  the  writer  has  taken  as  his  topic:  "The  influence 
exercised  on  the  mind  and  feelings  of  his  country  by 
Addison."  That  is  a  very  general  statement,  but  just 
such  as  many  poor  writers  use  as  if  it  were  a  whole 
paragraph.  It  is  only  the  topic  sentence  of  a  para- 
graph. Note  the  enumeration  of  the  various  details 
which  Professor  Gosse  had  in  mind  when  he  made  that 
general  statement.  First,  he  says  that  the  influence 
was  the  result  of  character  and  reasonableness;  sec- 
ondly, that  his  qualities  of  mind  were  so  harmonized 


THE  PARAGRAPH  121 

that  they  gave  an  almost  exaggerated  effect  of  his 
greatness;  third,  he  possessed  the  moral  literary  quali- 
ties, urbanity,  cheerfulness,  charm,  and  manners  to  a 
surpassing  degree;  fourthly,  he  mentions  his  wit,  his 
irony,  and  his  fancy;  fifthly,  he  shows  that  Addison's 
charm  is  so  captivating  that  we  do  not  think  of  con- 
trasting it  with  that  of  some  of  his  predecessors;  sixthly  ? 
Addison's  human  qualities  put  him  above  more  ori- 
ginal writers.  The  whole  paragraph  is  summed  up  in 
the  statement  that  Addison  is  "  classic,"  which  sub- 
stantiates the  claim  made  in  the  topic  sentence. 

This  might  be  taken  as  an  example  of  a  model  para- 
graph, for  it  has  all  the  essentials  of  a  well-developed 
paragraph.  Although  the  method  of  development  is 
by  details,  it  has  combined  with  it,  in  slight  measure, 
the  method  of  comparison  and  contrast,  also  cause  and 
effect.  The  combination  of  methods,  however,  is  very 
common.  It  is  closely  related,  also,  with  the  method 
of  giving  particulars  or  examples. 

In  studying  this  paragraph  attention  is  called  to  the 
variety  of  sentence  structures  and  to  the  choice  diction 
and  rhetorical  qualities. 

The  second  method  of  paragraph  development,  giv- 
ing particulars  or  examples,  is  less  analytical  than  giv- 
ing details.  When  a  general  statement  is  made  it  may 
be  accepted;  but  it  will  mean  more  when  it  has  been 
illustrated,  and  its  meaning  will  be  clearer.  The  mind 
always  works  from  general  to  specific  ideas,  conse- 
quently this  is  an  effective  way  of  expanding  a  para- 
graph.   It  is  sometimes  used  by  elaborating  some  one 


122  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

specific  illustration,  and  sometimes  by  giving  a  series 
of  specific  cases  illustrating  the  general  statement  of 
the  topic  sentence.  In  the  illustration  which  follows 
the  " series"  is  used,  and  with  it  is  combined  the 
method  of  comparison,  later  to  be  described : 

"  There  is  a  worse  evil  under  the  sun,  and 
that  is — a  female  Poor  Relation.  You  may  do 
something  with  the  other;  you  may  pass  him 
off  tolerably  well;  but  your  indigent  she-rela- 
tive is  hopeless.  'He  is  an  old  humorist/  you 
may  say,  'and  affects  to  go  threadbare.  His 
circumstances  are  better  than  folks  would  take 
them  to  be.  You  are  fond  of  having  a  charac- 
ter at  your  table,  and  truly  he  is  one.'  But  in 
the  indications  of  female  poverty  there  can  be 
no  disguise.  No  woman  dresses  below  herself 
from  caprice.     The  truth  must  out  without 

shuffling.  l  She  is  plainly  related  to  the  L s ; 

or  what  does  she  at  their  house? '  She  is,  in  all 
probability,  your  wife's  cousin.  Nine  times 
out  of  ten,  at  least,  this  is  the  case.  Her  garb 
is  something  between  a  gentlewoman  and  a 
beggar,  yet  the  former  evidently  predominates. 
She  is  most  strikingly  humble,  and  ostenta- 
tiously sensible  to  her  inferiority.  He  may 
require  to  be  repressed  sometimes — aliquando 
suffiaminandus  erat — but  there  is  no  raising  • 
her.  You  send  her  soup  at  dinner,  and  she 
begs  to  be  helped — after  the  gentlemen.    Mr. 

requests  the  honor  of  taking  wine  with 

her;  she  hesitates  between  Port  and  Madeira, 
and  chooses  the  former — because  he  does.  She 
calls  the  servant  sir,  and  insists  on  not  trou- 


THE  PARAGRAPH  123 

bling  him  to  hold  her  plate.    The  housekeeper 
patronizes  her.    The  children's  governess  takes 
upon  her  to  correct  her  when  she  has  mistaken 
the  piano  for  a  harpsichord." 
— Poor  Relations,  from  Essays  of  Elia:   .Charles  Lamb 

Note,  in  the  above  paragraph,  that  the  first  sentence, 
besides  being  the  topic  sentence,  is  also  a  transitional 
one,  showing  the  relation  between  the  paragraph  and 
the  one  which  preceded  it,  which  dealt  with  a  poor 
male  relation. 

Lamb's  topic,  evidently,  is  that  a  poor  female  rela- 
tion is  the  worst  evil  under  the  sun.  All  through  the 
paragraph  he  compares  her  with  the  poor  relation  of 
the  other  sex,  but  his  chief  method  of  making  his  mean- 
ing clear  is  by  showing  in  what  particular  ways  she  is 
worse.  That  such  is  true,  Lamb  shows  by  her  shabby 
dress,  a  fact  considerably  elaborated  by  her  mock 
humility,  also  developed  by  giving  illustrations,  her 
ignorance  of  good  manners,  etc. 

Note  how  the  interest  is  here  enhanced  by  humorous 
touches: 

"To  this  late  hour  of  my  life,  I  trace  impres- 
sions left  by  the  recollection  of  those  friendless 
holidays.  The  long,  warm  days  of  summer 
never  return  but  they  bring  with  them  a  gloom 
from  the  haunting  memory  of  those  whole-day- 
leaves,  when,  by  some  strange  arrangement  we 
were  turned  out  for  the  live-long  day,  upon 
our  own  hands,  whether  we  had  friends  to  go 
to,  or  none.  I  remember  those  bathing  excur- 
sions to  the  New  River,  which  L.  recalls  with 


124  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

such  relish,  better,  I  think,  than  he  can—for 
he  was  a  home-seeking  lad,  and  did  not  care 
much  for  such  water  pastures: — how  merrily 
we  would  sally  forth  into  the  fields;  and  strip 
under  the  first  warmth  of  the  sun;  and  wanton 
like  young  dace  in  the  streams;  getting  up 
appetites  for  noon  which  those  of  us  that  were 
penniless  (our  scanty  morning  crust  long  since 
exhausted)  had  not  the  means  of  allaying — 
while  the  cattle,  and  the  birds,  and  the  fishes 
were  at  feed  about  us,  and  we  had  nothing  to 
satisfy  our  cravings — the  very  beauty  of  the 
day,  and  the  exercise  of  the  pasture,  and  the 
sense  of  liberty  setting  a  keener  edge  upon 
them.  How  faint  and  languid,  finally,  we 
would  return,  toward  nightfall,  to  our  desired 
morsel,  half  rejoicing,  half  reluctant,  that  the 
hours  of  our  uneasy  liberty  had  expired." 
*  — Christ's  Hospital,  from  Essays  of  Elia:  Chaeles  Lamb 

In  this  paragraph  Lamb's  topic  sentence,  or  rather 
topic,  is  Friendless  Holidays.  Note  how  the  rest  of  the 
paragraph  illustrates  just  what  he  meant  by  "  friendless 
holidays"  when  they  were  "turned  out."  Now  we  feel 
that  the  boys  were  having  a  good  time,  and  now  we 
feel  that  they  were  not  for  they  could  not  satisfy  their 
appetites.  The  cattle,  the  bird,  the  fishes,  the  very 
day,  seemed  to  accentuate  their  misery.  At  the  end 
of  the  paragraph  we  have  no  doubt  but  that  the  friend- 
lessness  of  the  boys'  condition  was  what  the  author 
sought  to  illustrate.  This  is  an  excellent  example  of 
paragraph  development  by  illustration. 

Although  the  fourth  method  of  paragraph  develop- 


THE  PARAGRAPH  125 

ment  might  be  considered  as  two  separate  methods,  we 
group  them  for  convenience.  We  call  it  the  method  of 
Comparison  and  Contrast.  A  very  suggestive  way  of 
helping  one  understand  what  is  not  known  to  him  is 
by  comparing  it  with  something  with  which  he  is  famil- 
iar. In  a  similar  way,  clearness  results  from  pointing 
out  differences,  or  contrasts.  In  using  this  method 
care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  trying  to  compare  things 
that  cannot  reasonably  be  compared  or  contrasted. 

A  variation  of  this  method  is  sometimes  called  the 
use  of  obverse  statement,  but  for  practical  purposes  this 
may  be  considered  as  a  form  of  contrast. 

Paragraph  Developed  by  Comparison 

"Finally,  I  will  note  down  those  fundamen- 
tal characteristics  which  contradistinguish  the 
ancient  literature  from  the  modern  generally, 
but  which  more  especially  appear  in  promi- 
nence in  the  tragic  drama.  The  ancient  was 
allied  to  statuary,  the  modern  to  painting.  In 
the  first  there  is  a  predominance  of  rhythm 
and  melody,  in  the  second,  of  harmony  and 
counterpoint.  The  Greeks  idolized  the  finite, 
and  therefore  were  the  masters  of  all  grace, 
elegance,  proportion,  fancy,  dignity,  majesty 
— of  whatever,  in  short,  is  capable  of  being 
definitely  conveyed  by  defined  forms  or 
thoughts :  the  moderns  revere  the  infinite,  and 
affect  the  indefinite  as  a  vehicle  of  the  infinite 
■ — hence  their  passions,  their  obscure  hopes 
and  fears,  their  wandering  through  the  un- 
known,  their  grander  moral   feelings,   their 


126  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

more  august  conception  of  man  as  man,  their 
future  rather  than  their  past — in  a  word,  their 
sublimity." — Samuel  Taylor  Coleridge 

Study  this  paragraph  to  see  how  effectively  Coleridge 
has  used  the  method  of  comparison. 

What  do  you  note  about  the  first  and  the  last  sen- 
tences of  this  paragraph? 

The  following  paragraph  from  Dickens*  Oliver  Twist, 
like  several  other  paragraphs  preceding  and  following 
it,  well  illustrates  the  method  of  developing  a  para- 
graph by  arranging  the  details  in  a  series  of  effects  re- 
sulting from  the  cause  stated  in  the  topic  sentence: 

"For  now,  a  vision  came  before  him,  as  con- 
stant and  more  terrible  than  that  from  which 
he  had  escaped.  Those  wildly  staring  eyes,  so 
lusterless  and  so  glassy,  that  he  had  better 
borne  to  see  them  than  to  think  upon  them, 
appeared  in  the  midst  of  the  darkness:  light 
in  themselves,  but  giving  light  to  nothing. 
There  were  but  two,  but  they  were  everywhere. 
If  he  shut  out  the  sight,  there  came  the  room 
with  every  well-known  object — some,  indeed, 
that  he  would  have  forgotten,  if  he  had  gone 
over  its  contents  from  memory — each  in  its 
accustomed  place.  The  body  was  in  its  place, 
and  its  eyes  were  as  he  saw  them  when  he  stole 
away.  He  got  up,  and  rushed  out  into  the  field 
without.  The  figure  was  behind  him.  He  re- 
entered the  shed,  and  sank  down  once  more. 
The  eyes  were  there,  before  he  had  laid  him- 
self along."— Oliver  Twist:    Charles  Dickens 


THE  PARAGRAPH  127 

A  combination  of  two  or  more  of  the  foregoing  meth- 
ods of  development  is  sometimes  more  effective  than 
any  one  method  would  be  if  used  alone.  The  following 
paragraph  from  A  Group  of  English  Essayists,  by  C. 
T.  Winchester,  is  an  example  of  development  by  repe- 
tition combined  with  examples: 

"  Moreover,  the  range  of  his  (De  Quincey's) 
critical  appreciation  was  sharply  limited.  He 
was  as  insular  as  the  most  hide-bound  Briton. 
The  manners  of  all  the  Latin  races,  he  says, 
are  based  on  a  want  of  principle  and  a  want  of 
moral  sensibility.  He  never  would  admit  that 
anything  good  came  out  of  France.  In  speak- 
ing of  the  relations  of  French  and  English  lit- 
erature he  declares  that  'no  section  whatever 
of  French  literature  has  ever  availed  to  in- 
fluence in  the  slightest  degree  or  to  modify  our 
own';  a  statement  that  betrays  either  such 
ignorance  or  such  obstinate  prejudice  as  to 
discredit  whatever  he  has  to  say  of  our  eight- 
eenth-century writers.  Nor  is  it  race  preju- 
dice only  that  narrows  his  vision.  As  a  critic 
of  poetry,  he  was  deficient  in  the  sense  of  form, 
and  in  spite  of  the  pretensions  of  his  own 
prose-poetry  he  was  deficient  in  the  sense  of 
rhythm.  The  music  of  verse  appealed  to  him 
only  when  it  was  organ-like,  Miltonic.  In 
truth,  the  only  two  elements  in  literature  he 
ever  really  cared  much  for  were  the  mysterious 
or  recondite,  and  the  sublime;  and  he  liked 
best  that  writing  in  which  the  two  were  some- 
how combined.  Those  masterpieces  of  litera- 
ture which  depict  broad,  simple  action,  from 


128  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

obvious  motives,  had  no  interest  for  him.  He 
lived  half  his  life  in  Edinburgh,  but  I  find  no 
positive  evidence  that  he  ever  read  his  Walter 
Scott.  Even  the  sublime  he  did  not  appreciate 
unless  there  were  something  grandiose  or  spec- 
tacular in  it,  something  more  properly  to  be 
called  magnificent.  Milton  he  thought  sub- 
lime; Homer,  not  at  all.  I  doubt  whether  he 
thought  the  first  verse  of  the  chapter  of  Gene- 
sis sublime;  I  can  imagine  what  a  rhetorical 
bravura  he  would  have  written  upon  it.  In 
short,  he  narrowed  greatly  the  range  of  his 
criticism  by  renouncing  at  once  half  the  ma- 
terial out  of  which  the  best  literature  must  be 
wrought — the  lucid,  obvious  truths  of  life; 
and  then  by  holding  persistently  to  a  concep- 
tion of  rhetoric  which  tended  to  confound  art 
with  artifice. " 

Note  the  masterly  use  of  the  topic  sentence  and  the 
summarizing  sentence. 

Review  Suggestions 

Practice  work  in  paragraphing. 

In  all  writing,  attention  should  be  given  to  paragraphing,  but  it 
should  have  special  attention  here  at  the  end  of  the  chapter  on  the 
paragraph. 

Review  the  chapter,  heeding  especially  the  discussion  upon  the 
topic  sentence,  the  summarizing  sentence,  the  relation  of  the  topic 
sentence  to  the  method  of  paragraph  development,  how  to  choose 
the  best  method  to  use,  and  the  various  methods  of  developing  the 
topic  sentence.  Study  the  illustrative  paragraphs.  Learn  to 
discover  well-developed  paragraphs  in  your  reading  and  to  notice 
how  they  are  made  effective.  It  will  not  interfere  with  the  pleasure 
of  your  reading;  it  will  increase  it. 

Turn  to  the  end  of  the  chapter  on  Exposition  and  select  several 
of  the  proverbs  there  given  for  topic  sentences.     Carefully  decide 


THE  PARAGRAPH  129 

which  method  of  development  to  use.  Then  develop  a  paragraph 
from  the  topic  sentence. 

Find  the  topic  sentence  in  some  good  paragraph  in  a  book  you 
are  reading.  Do  not  notice  how  it  is  developed.  Develop  it  your 
way.  Then  compare  it  with  the  work  of  the  author.  You  may 
not  be  flattered  with  the  result.  Nevertheless,  the  practice  will 
do  you  good.  Keep  it  up.  After  a  while  you  may  feel  as  Benjamin 
Franklin  did  when  imitating  the  Spectator  Papers,  that  his  work  was 
as  well  done  as  that  of  Addison. 

Practice  a  series  of  paragraphs,  giving  heed  to  the  transitions. 
Make  them  appear  natural.  Avoid  monotonous  repetition  of 
transition  words.     Study  Burke  and  Ruskin. 

Test  all  your  paragraphs  for  unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis. 

Test  your  whole  compositions  for  orderly  arrangement  of  con- 
nected paragraphs  and  for  unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis  of  the 
whole  group  of  paragraphs. 

Avoid  overusing  any  one  method  of  development.  Try  all. 
Try  combinations  of  two  or  more  methods. 

Remember  that  you  are  to  do  your  best  to  make  a  fin- 
ished product  of  effective  expression. 


CHAPTER  V 
LETTER   WRITING 

One  of  the  most  important  and  most  practical  forms 
of  written  composition  is  letter  writing.  As  oral  composi- 
tion is  the  kind  of  expression  most  frequently  employed, 
so  letter  writing  is  the  most  common  form  of  written 
composition.  The  old  books  on  the  etiquette  of  letter 
writing  are  now  happily  taboo,  but  the  loss  of  those 
quaint  old  books  of  our  fathers  is  more  than  compen- 
sated for  by  the  best  of  the  rhetorics  of  to-day  which  give 
due  prominence  to  this  exacting  form  of  composition. 

Outside  of  the  schoolroom,  perhaps,  ninety-five  per 
cent  of  all  the  writing  done  is  in  the  form  of  letters, 
and  much  of  it  is  poorly  done.  The  results  are  so  far 
from  being  " finished  products  of  effective  expression" 
that  it  is  high  time  that  this  form  of  composition  be 
given  due  attention.  Almost  countless  numbers  do  not 
even  know  how  to  address  a  letter,  and  yet  they  send 
letters.  In  one  large  city  alone,  ten  millions  of  letters, 
in  one  year,  were  so  poorly  addressed  that  they  never 
reached  their  destination.  Mail-order  houses  have  to 
employ  specialists  to  puzzle  out  the  meaning  of  the 
thousands  of  letters  that  are  unintelligible.  What 
further  evidence  do  we  need  of  the  necessity  of  bring- 
ing rhetoric  to  the  aid  of  the  letter  writer? 

130 


LETTER  WRITING  131 

To  convince  the  possible  doubter  who  thinks  that 
letter  writing,  like  oral  English,  in  his  estimation,  will 
take  care  of  itself,  we  add  more  reasons.  It  is  well 
known  that  many  are  so  conscious  of  their  defects  that 
they  delay  to  answer  their  letters  until  they  and  others 
suffer.  Letters  are  the  most  personal  form  of  literature, 
and  consequently  betray  one's  ignorance  and  careless- 
ness even  more  than  his  speech.  Many  an  applicant 
for  a  position  has  failed  because  his  letter  betrayed  him. 
Not  infrequently  the  bad  impression  given  by  one's 
faulty  letter  is  worse  than  it  should  be,  for  some  of 
good  character  fail  to  give  any  evidence  of  it  in  their 
letters  and,  on  being  judged  by  their  letters  alone,  they 
cannot  reveal  good  qualities.  In  consequence,  then,  of 
its  almost  universal  use,  of  its  power  of  handicapping 
one  otherwise  fairly  competent,  of  its  value  as  a  means 
of  communication  in  the  business  and  in  the  social 
world,  letter  writing  must  be  considered  as  a  sphere 
where  good  diction,  grammatical  construction,  the  ap- 
plication of  the  principles  of  rhetoric,  paragraphing, 
and  planning,  are  as  essential  as  in  any  other  form  of 
composition. 

The  Place  of  Letter  Writing  in  Literature.  To  show 
the  importance  of  letter  writing  in  the  history  of  the 
world,  it  is  but  necessary  to  call  attention  to  the  fact 
that  it  is  the  oldest  form  of  written  expression,  and 
that  it  forms  a  great  part  of  the  world's  most  intimate 
literature.  Nearly  all  literary  men,  poets,  essayists, 
and  novelists,  have  contributed  to  this  form  of  litera- 
ture, and  through  it  have  revealed  themselves  more 


132  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

than  in  their  more  conscious  efforts.  The  letters  of 
other  than  literary  men  have  bulked  large  in  the  litera- 
ture of  the  past.  Letters  are  not  only  the  sources  from 
which  most  biographies  are  written;  they  form  a  large 
part,  often  the  best  part,  of  many  biographies.  The 
epistolary  style  of  writing  novels,  begun  by  Richard- 
son, has  never  wholly  died  out.  There  is  an  intimacy 
about  it  that  will  keep  it  alive  as  long  as  men  and  women 
like  to  express  themselves  in  letters. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  art  of  letter  writing  has 
died  out,  but  that  is  putting  it  too  strongly.  When 
the  means  of  communication  were  far  less  easy  than 
now,  and  when  the  cost  of  sending  a  letter  was  con- 
siderable, and  when  the  people  had  more  leisure,  it  was 
common  to  devote  much  time  and  care  to  letter  writing. 
For  that  very  reason,  it  was  the  custom,  in  those  days, 
to  publish  more  letters  than  now.  But  we  must  not 
jump  to  the  conclusion  that  letter  writing  has  become 
a  lost  art  because  letters  are  shorter  to-day  and  less 
frequently  published.  Nor  must  we  be  misled  because 
to-day  so  many  write  letters  that  there  must  inevitably 
be  many  inferior  ones.  Letters  from  the  front  during 
the  war  have  amply  refuted  the  idea  that  good  letters 
are  no  longer  written.  The  characteristics  of  good  let- 
ters are  not  dependent  upon  their  length  nor  upon  their 
being  printed.  It  is  as  safe  to  say  that  letters  of  as 
good  literary  quality  are  written  now  as  ever  before.1 


1  For  an  excellent  treatment  of  the  subject  consult  The  Great  English 
Letter-Writers,  by  William  J.  Dawson  and  Conningsby  W.  Dawson. 
Harper  &  Brothers. 


LETTER  WRITING  133 

Good  Form  Essential  in  Letter  Writing.  Although 
we  may  infer  that  the  word  " informal"  gives  a  large 
license  in  letter  writing,  the  fact  remains  that  even 
informal  letters  are  subject  to  quite  rigid  social  regula- 
tions which  cannot  be  ignored  unless  one  is  willing  to 
run  the  risk  of  being  thought  ignorant  of  good  usage 
in  letter  writing.  It  is  far  better  to  heed  these  conven- 
tions than  suffer  the  inconvenience  of  making  the  ex- 
planations and  defense  necessary  if  we  neglect  them. 
It  is  next  to  impossible  to  keep  fully  abreast  of  the 
latest  custom  concerning  the  most  formal  of  all  formal 
kinds  of  writing,  for  they  change  from  year  to  year. 
But,  inasmuch  as  these  forms  are  set  largely  by, the 
large  concerns  which  engrave  the  up-to-date  invita- 
tions, we  may  leave  it  to  them  to  do  the  work  as  it 
should  be.  Concerning  the  other  more  common  mat- 
ters pertaining  to  social  and  business  letters,  we  must 
know  how  to  write  them  ourselves. 

In  general,  it  should  be  remembered  that  while  social 
letters  are  largely  narrative  and  business  letters  largely 
expository  in  character,  letter  writing  really  embraces 
all  forms  of  discourse.  It  should  be  further  kept  in 
mind  that  a  letter  is  a  finished  product  made  from  raw 
material  by  the  same  processes  used  in  other  composi- 
tion; that  the  same  qualities  of  clearness,  force,  and 
elegance  are  to  be  sought,  and  by  the  application  of  the 
same  principles  of  unity,  coherence,  and  proportion. 
Failure  to  attain  the  rhetorical  qualities  will  result  as 
disastrously  in  a  letter  as  in  a  story  or  in  a  thesis  on  a 
difficult  subject.    And,  finally,  good  diction  and  proper 


134  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

paragraphing  are  as  useful  here  as  elsewhere  in  attain- 
ing the  best  results.  Letter  writing  is  no  place,  as  we 
have  already  shown,  for  careless  and  slovenly  work. 
Principles  may  be  applied  less  mechanically,  but  should 
not  be  used  less  artistically. 

Social  or  Friendly  Letters.  A  single  glance  at  the 
accumulated  pile  of  letters  one  receives  in  a  single  year, 
or  even  month,  reveals  the  fact  that  a  very  large  part 
of  our  social  intercourse  with  friends,  especially  if  they 
reside  at  a  distance,  is  carried  on  by  means  of  letters. 
Friends  not  only  keep  in  touch  with  one  another  in 
this  way;  they  carry  on  extended  conversations,  they 
"visit"  in  writing.  This  means  that  if  a  friendship  is 
to  be  more  than  merely  kept  alive,  if  it  is  to  grow  by 
means  of  correspondence,  letters  must  be  vitally  in- 
teresting and  extremely  personal.  Friendships  are  con- 
stantly dying  between  people  who  are  poor  correspon- 
dents; while,  on  the  other  hand,  friendships  are  not 
only  kept  alive,  but  are  made  to  develop  in  qual- 
ity between  people  who  "are  themselves  in  their 
letters." 

In  The  Art  and  Attainment  of  English  Letter 
Writing,  an  introductory  essay  in  the  book  al- 
ready referred  to,1  the  following  part  of  a  paragraph 
is  illuminating: 

"To  write  a  really  good  letter  requires  a 
combination  of  qualities  at  once  rare  in  them- 
selves and  rarer  still  in   their  conjunction. 


1  See  note  on  page  132. 


LETTER  WRITING  135 

Thus  the  writer  must  himself  be  interesting, 
and  have  interesting  matter  to  communicate; 
he  must  be  something  of  an  egoist,  to  whom 
his  own  sensations  are  noticeable  and  worthy 
of  notice;  he  must  possess  both  daring  and 
freedom,  for  the  last  place  where  caution  and 
reticence  are  required  is  in  the  familiar  epistle; 
he  must  be  resolutely  sincere,  for  the  moment 
he  begins  to  pose  his  magic  wand  is  broken 
and  he  becomes  tedious  and  offensive;  he 
must,  above  all,  possess  the  intimate  note,  for 
without  it  he  will  produce  an  essay,  but  not  a 
letter.  Of  all  these  good  qualities  the  last  is 
.  the  rarest,  for  a  good  letter  is  really  a  page 
from  the  secret  memoirs  of  a  man.  It  may  be 
a  memoir  of  ideas  or  of  events;  it  does  not 
greatly  matter  which,  so  long  as  it  contributes 
to  our  knowledge  of  the  man.  For  this  is  the 
first  aim  of  a  true  letter,  self-revelation.  In 
many  forms  of  literature  self-revelation  is  the 
last  thing  to  be  expected;  in  most  it  would  be 
a  disturbing  and  offensive  element.  We  do 
not  need  it  in  the  historian;  we  need  it  only 
partially  in  the  essayist ;  even  in  poetry,  espe- 
cially of  the  epic  kind,  it  is  not  always  wanted; 
but  in  the  letter  we  want  this,  and  nothing  less 
than  this.  The  man  who  is  not  prepared  to 
unlock  his  heart  to  us  can  never  write  a  great 
letter." 

The  letters  given  below  speak  for  themselves.  They 
are  given  as  illustrations  of  the  friendly  letter  at  its 
best.  You  will  note  that  they  amply  fulfill  the  require- 
ments mentioned  in  the  quotation  given  above. 


136  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

Washington,  D.  C, 
November  21,  1864. 
Dear  Madam, 

I  have  been  shown  in  the  files  of  the  War 
Department  a  statement  of  the  Adjutant- 
General  of  Massachusetts  that  you  are  the 
mother  of  five  sons  who  have  died  gloriously 
on  the  field  of  battle.  I  feel  how  weak  and 
fruitless  any  words  must  be,  any  words  of 
mine  which  should  attempt  to  beguile  you 
from  the  grief  of  a  loss  so  overwhelming.  But 
I  cannot  refrain  from  tendering  to  you  the  con- 
solation that  may  be  found  in  the  thanks  of 
the  Republic  that  they  died  to  save.  I  pray 
that  our  heavenly  Father  may  assuage  the 
anguish  of  your  bereavement  and  leave  you 
only  the  cherished  memory  of  the  loved  and 
lost,  and  the  solemn  pride  that  must  be  yours 
to  have  laid  so  costly  a  sacrifice  upon  the  altar 
of  freedom. 

Yours  very  sincerely  and  respectfully, 
Abraham  Lincoln. 

(The  following  letter  is  from  Charlotte  Bronte  to 
W.  S.  Williams,  after  the  death  of  her  sister  Emily.) 

December  25th,  1848. 

My  dear  Sir, — I  will  write  to  you  more  at 
length  when  my  heart  can  find  a  little  rest — 
now  I  can  only  thank  you  very  briefly  for  your 
letter,  which  seemed  to  me  eloquent  in  its 
sincerity. 

Emily  is  nowhere  here  now,  her  wasted 
mortal  remains  are  taken  out  of  the  house. 
We  have  laid  her  cherished  head  under  the 


LETTER  WRITING  137 

church  aisle  beside  my  mother's,  my  two  sis- 
ters— dead  long  ago — and  my  poor,  hapless 
brother's.  But  a  small  remnant  of  the  race  is 
left — so  my  poor  father  thinks. 

Well,  the  loss  is  ours,  not  hers,  and  some  sad 
comfort  I  take,  as  I  hear  the  wind  blow  and 
feel  the  cutting  keenness  of  the  frost,  in  know- 
ing that  the  elements  bring  her  no  more  suf- 
fering; their  severity  cannot  reach  her  grave; 
her  fever  is  quieted,  her  restlessness  soothed, 
her  deep,  hollow  cough  is  hushed  forever;  we 
do  not  hear  it  in  the  night  nor  listen  for  it  in 
the  morning;  we  have  not  the  conflict  of  the 
strangely  strong  spirit  and  the  fragile  frame 
before  us — relentless  conflict — once  seen,  never 
to  be  forgotten.  A  dreary  calm  reigns  round 
us,  in  the  midst  of  which  we  seek  resignation. 

My  father  and  my  sister  Anne  are  far  from 
well.  As  for  me,  God  has  hitherto  most  gra- 
ciously sustained  me;  so  far  I  have  felt  ade- 
quate to  bear  my  own  burden  and  even  to  offer 
a  little  help  to  others.  I  am  not  ill;  I  can  get 
through  daily  duties,  and  do  something  to- 
wards keeping  hope  and  energy  alive  in  our 
mourning  household.  My  father  says  to  me 
almost  hourly,  "  Charlotte,  you  must  bear  up, 
I  shall  sink  if  you  fail  me";  these  words,  you 
can  conceive,  are  a  stimulus  to  nature.  The 
sight,  too,  of  my  sister  Anne's  very  still  but 
deep  sorrow  wakens  in  me  such  fear  for  her 
that  I  dare  not  falter.  Somebody  must  cheer 
the  rest. 

So  I  will  not  now  ask  why  Emily  was  torn 
from  us  in  the  fullness  of  our  attachment, 
rooted  up  in  the  prime  of  her  own  days,  in 


138  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

the  promise  of  her  powers;  why  her  existence 
now  lies  like  a  field  of  green  corn  trodden 
down,  like  a  tree  in  full  bearing  struck  at  the 
root.  I  will  only  say,  sweet  rest  is  after  labor 
and  calm  after  tempest,  and  repeat  again  and 
again  that  Emily  knows  that  now. 
Yours  sincerely, 

C.  Bronte. 

Newstead  Abbey,  Sept.  20,  1814. 

"Here's  to  her  who  long 

Hath  waked  the  poet's  sigh! 
The  girl  who  gave  to  song 
What  gold  could  never  buy." 

My  dear  Moore, — 

I  am  going  to  be  married — that  is  I  am  ac- 
cepted, and  one  usually  hopes  the  rest  will 
follow.  My  mother  of  the  Gracchi  (that  are 
to  be),  you  think  too  straightlaced  for  me,  al- 
though the  paragon  of  only  children,  and  in- 
vested with  "golden  opinions  of  all  sorts  of 
men,"  and  full  of  "most  blessed  conditions' ' 
as  Desdemona  herself.  Miss  Milbanke  is  the 
lady,  and  I  have  her  father's  invitation  to  pro- 
ceed there  in  my  elect  capacity — which,  how- 
ever, I  cannot  do  till  I  have  settled  some  busi- 
ness in  London,  and  got  a  blue  coat. 

She  is  said  to  be  an  heiress,  but  of  that  I 
really  know  nothing  certainly,  and  shall  not 
enquire.  But  I  do  know,  that  she  has  talents 
and  excellent  qualities ;  and  you  will  not  deny 
her  judgment,  after  having  refused  six  suitors 
and  taken  me. 

Now,  if  you  have  anything  to  say  against 
this,  pray  do;  my  mind's  made  up,  positively 


LETTER  WRITING  139 

fixed,  determined,  and  therefore  I  will  listen 
to  reason,  because  now  it  can  do  no  harm. 
Things  may  occur  to  break  it  off,  but  I  will 
hope  not.  In  the  meantime,  I  tell  you  (a  se- 
cret, by  the  way — at  least,  till  I  know  she 
wishes  it  to  be  public)  that  I  have  proposed 
and  am  accepted.  You  need  not  be  in  a  hurry 
to  wish  me  joy,  for  one  mayn't  be  married  for 
months.  I  am  going  to  town  to-morrow;  but 
expect  to  be  here,  on  my  way  there,  within  a 
fortnight. 

If  this  had  not  happened,  I  should  have  gone 
to  Italy.  In  my  way  down,  perhaps,  you  will 
meet  me  at  Nottingham,  and  come  over  with 
me  here.  I  need  not  say  that  nothing  will  give 
me  greater  pleasure.  I  must,  of  course,  reform 
thoroughly;  and,  seriously,  if  I  can  contribute 
to  her  happiness,  I  shall  secure  my  own.  She 
is  so  good  a  person,  that — that — in  short,  I 
wish  I  was  a  better. 

Ever  &c. 
(Lord  Byron  to  Thomas  Moore.) 

The  following  two  letters  are  from  well-known  Ameri- 
cans to  the  author  of  this  book.  Although  they  are 
partially  of  a  business  nature,  they  are  good  examples 
of  friendly  letters. 

H.  v.D.  Avalon, 

Princeton,  N.  J. 
October  24th,   1907. 
My  dear  Mr.  Rhodes: 

Your  kind  letter  of  October  21st.  is  at  hand, 
and  is  welcome  as  a  letter  from  you  always  is. 
I  am  glad  to  hear  of  your  happiness  and  of 
your  success  in  your  work. 


140  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

Unfortunately  it  is  not  possible  for  me  to 
accept  any  more  invitations  for  lectures  or 
readings  this  winter.  The  calendar  is  already 
full  to  overflowing. 

I  have  just  received  from  the  A.  B.  C.  Co. 
my  first  copies  of  your  "Cranford,"  and  am 
greatly  pleased  with  it.  I  am  not  in  the  way 
of  receiving  any  criticisms  upon  these  books, 
as  I  do  not  subscribe  to  any  "literary  clip- 
pings" bureau.  I  find  that  to  do  so  distracts 
one's  attention  from  literature.  A  represen- 
tative of  the  A.  B.  C.  Co.  came  down  to  see 
me  this  week  and  reported  that  he  heard  the 
most  favorable  comments  upon  the  Gateway 
Series  among  the  teachers  in  the  West  and 
that  it  is  doing  very  well  indeed. 

With  best  regards, 

Faithfully  yours, 

Henry  van  Dyke. 

Princeton,  New  Jersey, 
21  January,  1903. 
My  dear  Mr.  Rhodes: 

How  could  a  man  decline  so  flattering  a 
compliment  as  that  which  the  Literary  Clinic 
has  paid  me?  It  will  give  me  real  pleasure  to 
accept  an  honorary  membership  in  the  Club, 
and  I  shall  hope  that  I  shall  have  the  good  for- 
tune during  some  future  season  to  be  a  guest 
of  the  Clinic. 

With  much  regard  and  appreciation, 
Sincerely  yours, 

Woodrow  Wilson. 

Mr.  Charles  E.  Rhodes. 


LETTER  WRITING  141 

Titles.  When  a  man  has  no  professional  title,  use 
abbreviations  for  Mister  or  Esquire  (Mr.  or  Esq.),  but 
never  use  both.  In  this  country  Mr.  is  preferred  to  Esq. 
except  in  the  case  of  a  man  of  some  distinction. 

Where  there  are  titles  they  should  not  be  repeated 
after  the  name  when  they  have  been  used  before  it. 
Do  not  say,  Dr.  James  Pelton,  M.D.;  say,  Dr.  James 
Pelton,  or  James  Pelton,  M.D. 

The  distinction  between  titles  and  academic  degrees 
should  be  kept  in  mind.  A  clergyman  should  be  ad- 
dressed as  Reverend  Charles  Simpson  if  he  has  no  de- 
gree, but  if  he  is  also  a  Doctor  of  Divinity,  he  should 
be  addressed  Reverend  Charles  Simpson,  D.D.  Some 
authorities  claim  that  the  title  Reverend  should  always 
be  preceded  by  the  article,  "The";  it  is  not  necessary, 
though  more  formal.  Never  say,  Reverend  Simpson. 
If  the  Christian  name  is  not  used  say,  "The  Reverend 
Mr.  Simpson,  or  Reverend  Mr.  Simpson." 

With  the  exception  of  "Dr."  the  name  of  the  title 
is  usually  written  out  in  full;  e.g.,  Professor  George 
Thompson,  Ph.D. 

Where  a  man  has  a  business  title  it  should  be  used 
in  letters  to  him  upon  business  connected  with  his  firm; 
e.g.,  John  McGinness,  Esq.,  General  Agent. 

Officers  of  the  regular  army  and  navy  are  addressed 
by  their  titles,  spelled  out  in  full,  and  without  the  civil 
titles  Mr.  or  Sir;  e.g.,  General  Ulysses  S.  Grant,  Ad- 
miral John  Ferguson. 


142  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

The  President  may  be  addressed  in  any  of  the  fol- 
lowing ways: 

To  the  President, 

The  White  House, 
Washington,  D.  C. 
Sir: 

To  the  President  of  the  United  States, 
The  White  House, 

Washington,  D.  C. 
Sir: 

To  the  Honorable  Warren  G.  Harding, 
President  of  the  United  States, 
Washington,  D.  C. 
Sir: 

To  the  Honorable  Warren  G.  Harding,  President, 
The  White  House, 

Washington,  D.  C. 
Sir: 

Senators  are  addressed  as  follows: 

Honorable  William  Morgan, 
Senator  from  New  York, 
The  Senate  Chamber, 
Washington,  D.  C. 
Sir: 

Honorable  William  Morgan, 
The  Senate  Chamber, 
Washington,  D.  C. 
Sir: 


LETTER  WRITING  143 

Senator  William  Morgan, 
The  Senate  Chamber, 
Washington,  D.  C. 
Sir: 

Members  of  the  House  of  Representatives  are  ad- 
dressed : 

Honorable  Clement  White, 
House  of  Representatives, 
Washington,  D.  C. 
Sir: 

Honorable  Clement  White,  M.C., 

Washington,  D.  C, 
Sir:  (or  Dear  Sir:) 

Address  the  Vice-President : 

To  the  Vice-President  of  the  United  States, 

Washington,  D,  C. 
Sir: 

Address  a  member  of  the  Supreme  Court: 

To  the  Honorable  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes,  Associate 
Justice, 
The  United  States  Supreme  Court, 
Washington,  D.  C. 
Sir: 

Forms  similar  to  the  above  are  used  in  addressing 
members  of  the  Cabinet. 


144  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

Governors  are  addressed: 

To  his  Excellency,  the  Governor, 
Executive  Mansion, 
Albany,  N.  Y. 
Sir: 

Mayors  of  cities  are  addressed: 

To  his  Honor,  the  Mayor, 
The  City  HaU, 
Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
Sir: 

The  Honorable  George  S.  Buck, 
Mayor  of  Buffalo, 
The  City  Hall/ 
Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
Sir: 

"Sir"  is  preferable  in  the  above  cases  when  address- 
ing officials  officially;  otherwise  "Dear  Sir"  is  more 
appropriate. 

Women,  whether  married  or  single,  are  addressed  as 
"Madam"  when  addressed  singly;  as  "Mesdames"  or 
"Ladies"  when  addressed  in  groups  of  two  or  more. 

Business  firms  and  institutions  should  always  be 
given  their  full  titles  in  addressing  them. 

The  Robertson-Cataract  Electric  Company, 

Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
Sirs: 


LETTER  WRITING  145 

Rochester  City  Hospital, 

Rochester,  N.  Y. 
Sirs: 

When  an  officer  of  a  firm  or  institution  is  addressed, 
show  in  your  address  what  his  title  is : 

Dr.  James  Crosby,  Superintendent, 
Rochester  City  Hospital, 
Rochester,  N.  Y. 
My  dear  Dr.  Crosby: 

When  an  employee,  not  an  officer,  is  addressed,  use 
the  following  form: 

The  Robertson-Cataract  Electrical  Company, 

Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
Attention  Mr.  Mitchells: 

The  Ordinary  Conventions  of  Informal,  Friendly  Let- 
ters. Even  in  informal  letters  there  are  certain  forms 
required  by  good  usage,  which,  however,  allows  con- 
considerable  option.    Keep  the  following  in  mind: 

1.  The  Heading.  The  heading  consists  of  the  ad- 
dress of  the  writer  and  the  date  upon  which  the  letter 
is  written.  Ordinarily  the  heading  is  placed  at  the 
beginning  of  the  letter,  near  the  right  margin,  and  an 
inch  or  an  inch  and  a  half  from  the  top  of  the  page, 
as  in  the  letter  from  Woodrow  Wilson.  The  heading 
may  occupy  two  or  three  lines.  When  street  and  house 
numbers  are  given,  it  is  better  to  use  three  lines. 
When  the  letter  is  to  a  very  intimate  friend  or  near 


146  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

relative,  it  is  not  always  necessary  to  include  the  place 
in  the  heading.  The  date,  however,  must  always  be 
given.  Each  line  in  the  heading,  after  the  first,  begins 
and  extends  a  little  further  to  the  right.   For  example : 

507  Potomac  Avenue, 
Buffalo,  N.  Y., 

December  6,  1920. 

Each  line  ends  with  a  comma,  except  the  last,  which 
requires  a  period. 

The  items  of  the  heading  may  be  placed  at  the  end 
of  the  letter,  in  which  case  it  should  be  on  the  line 
below  the  signature  and  beginning  a  little  to  the  right 
of  the  initials  or  the  Christian  name  of  the  signature. 
This  form  is  less  common  than  that  of  placing  the 
heading  at  the  upper  right-hand  corner  of  the  first 
sheet. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  letter  from  Henry  van  Dyke 
varies  from  the  form  mentioned  as  correct,  but  that 
letter  was  on  engraved  stationery,  and  with  such 
stationery  the  name  of  the  place  is  engraved  in  the 
center  of  the  sheet  an  inch  or  more  from  the  top.  The 
date  is  then,  as  usual,  at  the  right. 

2.  The  Salutation.  The  form  of  the  salutation  de- 
pends upon  the  degree  of  intimacy  existing  between 
the  writer  and  the  one  addressed.  Common  sense  and 
good  taste  are  the  surest  guides.  "My  dear  Miss  Sey- 
mour "  is  quite  formal  and  indicates  formal  relations, 
such  as  might  exist  between  comparative  strangers  or 
between  a  young  person  and  another  considerably 
older;    "My  dear  Florence "  indicates  some  degree  oi 


LETTER  WRITING  147 

formality,  while  "Dear  Florence "  would  be  appropri- 
ate in  case  of  intimate  friendship.  Adjectives  between 
the  first  and  the  last  words  of  the  salutation  are  not 
capitalized. 

Other  forms  are  too  intimate  and  too  private  and  per- 
sonal to  need  consideration  here. 

A  word  of  caution  is  added,  however,  against  the  too 
common  use  of  the  word  friend,  and  especially  against 
the  taboo  expression,  "  Friend  John." 

a.  Let  the  salutation  be  brief,  and  in  good 
taste. 

b.  The  position  of  the  salutation  is  at  the 
left  of  the  sheet,  beginning  at  the  marginal  line, 
one  inch  from  the  edge  of  the  sheet.  It  should 
be  on  the  line  below  the  heading,  unless  the 
address  is  given,  in  which  case  it  follows  the 
last  line  of  the  address. 

c.  The  punctuation  following  the  salutation, 
like  the  form  of  the  salutation,  is  determined 
by  the  degree  of  intimacy  existing  between  the 
correspondents.  The  comma  is  most  informal; 
the  colon  the  most  formal;  while  the  comma 
and  the  dash  and  the  colon  and  the  dash  indi- 
cate the  intermediate  degrees  of  intimacy. 

3.  The  Address.  The  address  is  usually  omitted  in 
friendly  letters  except  where  necessity,  as  in  the  case  of 
a  "new  or  changed  address,  requires  it.  It  is  usually 
placed  at  the  end  of  the  letter,  below  the  signature, 
and  at  the  left  and  beginning  at  the  margin.  It  is  ar- 
ranged and  punctuated  as  in  the  case  of  the  heading. 

Be  consistent  in  the  use  of  the  open  or  the  closed 


148  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

system  of  punctuation.    Do  not  mix  them.    The  open 
system  is  growing  in  favor. 

4.  The  Body  of  the  Letter.  The  body  of  the  letter  is, 
of  course,  the  important  part.  It  should  be  remembered 
that  it  is  to  please  and  to  interest  the  one  addressed. 
This  means  that  there  should  be  no  long  and  useless 
beginning,  no  empty  and  commonplace  expressions, 
such  as,  "I  have  some  spare  time  and  so  will  write  you 
a  few  lines/ '  for  that  really  means  discourtesy.  Begin 
at  once  to  say  what  you  have  to  say  and  say  it  in  the 
best  way  you  can  command.  All  the  principles  of 
rhetoric  should  serve  you  here  as  in  other  kinds  of 
composition.  Never  say,  "It's  only  a  letter  and  does 
not  matter.' '  It  does  matter.  Be  yourself  and  put 
yourself  into  your  letter.  Do  not  scorn  the  paragraph 
in  your  letter  writing.  It  is  as  valuable  there  as  else- 
where. Do  not  run  on  and  on  after  you  have  said 
what  you  really  want  to  say.  Remember  that  another 
is  expected  to  read  what  you  write.  Let  him  want 
more;  do  not  bore  him.  If  you  are  answering  another's 
letter,  answer  it.  It  is  what  he  expects.  You  cannot 
afford  to  disappoint  him.  When  you  have  finished,  stop 
with  the  interest  still  at  its  height.  Do  not  say,  "I  can- 
not think  of  anything  more  to  write  and  so  must  stop." 

5.  The  Closing.  Here,  as  in  the  opening,  there  is 
much  option  as  to  the  form.  Again  the  degree  of  social 
intimacy  determines  whether  you  say,  "Yours  respect- 
fully," "Yours  truly,"  "Yours  cordially,"  "Yours  sin- 
cerely," "Yours  affectionately,"  or  whether  you  may 
use  still  stronger  terms.    These  given  are  all  proper  and 


LETTER  WRITING  149 

moderate.  Do  not,  however,  say  "  Yours  &c";  it  in- 
dicates an  unseemly  haste  or  even  indifference. 

If  the  participial  closing,  "  Hoping  to  hear  from  you 
soon/'  and  similar  expressions  are  used,  use  them  spar- 
ingly. It  is  better  to  avoid  them  entirely.  They  are 
too  reminiscent  of  old  forms  that  are  better  forgotten. 

Place  the  complimentary  closing  well  toward  the 
right  of  the  page  on  the  line  next  below  the  last  line 
of  the  body  of  the  letter.  Capitalize  only  the  first 
word  of  the  complimentary  closing  phrase. 

In  signing  your  name,  use  the  Christian  name  only 
in  case  of  real  intimacy.  Avoid  the  use  of  initials. 
Where  there  is  any  degree  of  formality,  write  the  name 
in  full. 

After  the  complimentary  closing  phrase,  use  a  comma, 
and  after  the  name  use  a  period,  except  when  using  the 
open  system. 

Sign  the  name,  beginning  about  half  an  inch  farther 
to  the  right  than  the  beginning  of  the  complimentary 
closing  words. 

6.  The  Superscription.  The  superscription  consists 
of  what  is  necessary  to  put  upon  the  envelope  to  insure 
safe  delivery  and,  in  case  of  failure  to  reach  its  destina- 
tion, to  have  the  letter  returned  to  the  sender  instead 
of  to  the  " dead-letter  office.'' 

In  general,  the  address  on  the  envelope  is  arranged 
and  punctuated  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  letter 
and  in  the  heading. 

The  name  should  be  placed  approximately  in  the 
center  of  the  envelope,  with  the  address  under  it,  each 


150  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

line  beginning  a  little  farther  to  the  right.  The  order 
is  important:  name,  street  and  number,  city,  state. 
Uniformity  here  facilitates  delivery. 

If  the  address,  with  or  without  the  name  of  the 
sender,  is  placed  upon  the  envelope,  it  should  be  in 
the  upper  left-hand  corner. 

If  the  letter  is  sent  "in  care  of"  some  other  person, 
that  fact  should  be  stated  in  the  lower  left-hand  cor- 
ner of  the  envelope. 

Consult  the  models  given  below: 


Mr.  James  Boyd  Montgomery, 
367  Cleveland  Street, 
Chicago ,  111. 


Miss  Emily  Sutherland 

916  Aloany  Street 

New  Haven 

Connecticut 

LETTER  WRITING  151 


Mr.  George  Buchanan, 

916  Delaware  Avenue, 
Springfield,  Ohio. 

Professor  Henry  Summers, 
Princeton  University, 
Princeton,    N.    J. 

Mr  John  Henry 

Scott 

156    Claremont 

Avenue 

Rochester 

New  York 

John 

Newman  Thompson, 
35   Kent   Street, 

Esq., 

Nashville , 

Tenn. 

In 

care   of 

Mr.    James   Jay. 

The  forms  shown  are  further  accepted  for  the  address 
upon  the  envelope.  The  first,  called  the  block  form,  is 
growing  in  favor  because  of  its  pleasing  appearance 
and  of  the  ease  in  writing  or  typing  it. 


152  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

The  "open  system/ '  which  means  using  the  mini- 
mum of  punctuation  in  the  heading,  salutation,  and 
address,  is  also  growing  in  favor.  It  is  used  by  the 
New  York  State  Department  of  English  in  their  letters 
and  upon  examination  papers.  In  view  of  the  practice 
of  such  high  authorities,  we  predict  an  increasing  use 
of  the  "open  system"  until  it  becomes  an  established 
custom.  The  "open  system"  also  omits  the  period  in 
Mr  and  Mrs. 

While  we  would  not  appear  so  radical  as  to  demand 
this  system,  we  favor  it  and  recommend  it. 

Study  the  following  letter : 

Albany,  June  5,  1918 

Mr  Charles  Elbert  Rhodes   * 
Lafayette  High  School 
Buffalo,  N.  Y 

My  dear  Mr  Rhodes: 

The  form  which  you  have  prepared  for  re- 
cording the  supplementary  reading  of  individ- 
ual pupils  in  your  classes  seems  to  me  an  ad- 
mirable one.  If  you  have  them  to  spare,  please 
send  me  twenty  or  twenty-five  copies  so  that 
I  may  have  them  for  distribution. 
Sincerely  yours 

R.  T.  Congdon 
RTC-C 

Formal  Notes.  The  strictly  formal  note  is  written 
in  the  third  person  and  the  one  addressed  is  mentioned 
in  the  third  person.  There  is  no  heading,  unless  en- 
graved cards  are  used;  and  the  date  is  written  out  in 


LETTER  WRITING  153 

full,  except  that  the  year  is  commonly  omitted,  in  the 
lower  left-hand  corner  of  the  card  or  sheet  of  paper. 
There  are  few  variations  in  formal  notes.  Such  notes 
are  used  principally  for  invitations  and  replies  to  invi- 
tations, either  acceptances  or  regrets. 
Note  the  details  of  the  following: 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  John  Henry  Terhune  request 
the  pleasure  of  Mr.  Charles  James  Merritt's 
company  at  dinner  on  Saturday  evening,  June 
the  fifteenth,  at  seven  o'clock. 
1017  Broad  Street, 
June  fifth. 

Mr.  Merritt  accepts  with  pleasure  Mr.  and 
Mrs.  John  Henry  Terhune's  kind  invitation 
to   dinner   on   Saturday   evening,   June   the 
fifteenth,  at  seven  o'clock. 
1339  Eighteenth  Street, 
June  sixth. 

Mr.  Merritt  regrets  his  inability  to  accept 
Mr.  and  Mrs.  John  Henry  Terhune's  kind  in- 
vitation to  dinner  on  Saturday  evening,  June 
the  fifteenth,  at  seven  o'clock. 
1339  Eighteenth  Street, 
June  sixth. 

Do  not  use  the  future  tense  in  accepting  or  declining 
an  invitation.    Always  use  the  present  tense. 

It  is  important  to  repeat  the  exact  words  of  the  in- 
vitation when  accepting  or  declining. 

In  engraved  invitations  the  word  "your"  may  be 
used  because  it  would  be  impossible  to  engrave  the 


154  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

names  of  all  the  guests  invited.  Sometimes,  however, 
there  is  a  blank  left  in  the  engraved  invitation  to  allow 
the  name  of  each  one  invited  to  be  written  in. 

Business  Letters.  Business  letters  require  special 
attention,  for  they  are  the  means  of  carrying  on  busi- 
ness by  mail,  and  a  very  large  part  of  the  world's  busi- 
ness is  so  conducted.  The  two  chief  aims  in  business 
letters  are  clearness  and  conciseness;  the  aim  must  be 
to  say  all  that  is  necessary  to  make  one's  meaning  per- 
fectly clear,  but  to  avoid  any  unnecessary  details. 

A  few  years  ago  business  letters  were  perfunctory 
affairs,  poorly  written,  and  abounding  in  something 
approaching  "business  slang,"  and  puzzling  omissions 
and  abbreviations.  To-day,  the  business  world  fully 
realizes  that  a  good  business  letter  cannot  be  written 
unless  the  writer  knows  how  to  produce  good  English, 
— clear,  concise,  forceful,  and  graceful.  The  large  con- 
cerns have  specialists  to  do  their  correspondence  and 
the  correspondence  department  trains  its  members  in 
good  English  as  well  as  in  the  details  of  the  business 
they  are  to  help  carry  on.  The  letters  between  high- 
grade  firms  have  greatly  improved. 

In  the  case  of  many  large  mail-order  houses,  however, 
more  than  half  of  the  correspondence  is  in  the  form  of 
orders  from  illiterate  people  who  cannot  make  their 
wants  known;  who  cannot  even  direct  the  envelope 
properly.  It  will  take  years  of  strenuous  education 
to  train  the  general  public  until  they  can  really  express 
themselves.  The  writing  of  properly  constructed  busi- 
ness letters,  then,  becomes  of  the  first  importance  even 


LETTER  WRITING  155 

in  the  grade  schools  beyond  which  the  great  majority 
never  go. 

In  the  business  world,  a  large  part  of  the  advertising 
and  often  the  most  effective  part,  is  done  by  letters; 
goods  are  bought  and  sold  by  letters;  and  errors  and 
claims  are  adjusted  by  letters.  In  advertising,  the  first 
essential  of  all  other  composition,  interest,  is  found  to 
be  just  as  important  as  in  a  novel,  a  poem,  or  a  play, 
for  unless  the  advertisement  is  attractive  enough  to 
create  interest,  which  is  the  first  step  in  creating  a 
demand,  it  is  useless.  If  it  is  characterized  by  some- 
thing approaching  literary  charm,  if  it  has  real  force 
so  as  to  reach  the  heart,  if  it  possesses  an  indefinable 
telling  power,  it  becomes  a  most  effective  finished  prod- 
uct of  expression;  it  creates  customers.  The  salesman 
must  be  a  man  of  real  power.  He  must  know  his  busi- 
ness and  he  must  know  human  nature.  If  he  knows 
psychology,  as  he  must  if  he  fully  knows  human  nature, 
so  much  the  better.  He  must  have  a  sense  of  humor 
and  an  imagination.  The  more  fully  equipped  he  is  in 
these  qualities  the  better  he  can  do  his  work.  He  will 
be  able  to  write  effective  letters.  He  will  sell  goods. 
The  adjuster  of  claims  must  possess  the  same  qualities 
together  with  much  courtesy  and  tact. 

The  form  of  the  good  business  letter  permits  but 
slight  variations.  When  one  receives  a  business  letter 
he  wants  to  be  able  to  determine,  at  once  and  without 
any  delay,  who  wrote  it,  where  it  was  written,  when 
it  was  written,  to  whom  it  was  addressed,  and  what  it 
says.    The  first  four  of  these  questions  should  be  an- 


156  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

swered  in  the  formal  parts  of  the  letter — the  heading, 
the  address,  and  the  subscription.  The  last  is  the  body 
of  the  letter.  There  is  no  excuse  for  an  error  in  form. 
Learn  the  correct  form  and  then  practice  using  it  with- 
out variations. 

1.  The  Heading.  Most  business  houses  have  "letter 
heads/'  so  that  all  that  is  necessary  to  insure  the  head- 
ing's being  right  is  to  fill  in  the  date.  It  is  well  to  avoid 
abbreviations,  such  as  1-5-18,  for  January  5,  1918. 
If  it  is  argued  that  such  brief  forms  save  time,  we  reply 
that  they  are  confusing.  The  fact  that  the  Friends,  or 
Quakers,  demand  that  the  day  be  named  first,  is  alone 
enough  to  cause  errors.  Business  demands  exactness. 
Doubt  as  to  a  date  might  cause  great  loss,  or  even  a 
lawsuit.  Then,  too,  such  abbreviations  indicate  un- 
seemly haste,  which  even  the  rush  of  the  business 
world  does  not  demand,  does  not  tolerate. 

When  writing  a  business  letter  on  ordinary  paper, 
that  is,  paper  that  has  no  printing  on  it,  the  heading 
should  be  the  same  as  in  the  friendly  letter,  but  it 
should  always  be  complete. 

2.  The  Inside  Address.  This  is  essential  in  business 
letters,  especially  where  the  letters  are  placed  in  the 
envelopes  by  clerks  who  have  many  of  them  to  handle. 
The  use  of  the  address  is  a  necessary  convention.  As 
in  the  case  of  the  friendly  letter,  the  address  should  be 
a  space  or  two  below  the  heading,  beginning  at  the 
left  margin. 

3.  The  Salutation.  This,  too,  is  a  mere  form,  but  it 
is  followed  from  custom.    It  is  placed  beneath  the  ad- 


LETTER  WRITING  157 

dress  and  also  begins  at  the  left  margin.  The  com- 
monest salutations  are:  "Sir,"  "Sirs,"  "Gentlemen," 
"My  dear  Sir,"  "Madam,"  "My  dear  Madam,"  and  the 
like.  Sometimes  an  officer  of  an  institution  or  a  member 
of  a  firm  is  addressed,  in  which  case  be  sure  to  give  the 
title  indicating  his  official  position.     (See  models.) 

The  proper  punctuation  after  the  salutation  is  the 
colon,  or  the  colon  and  the  dash. 

4.  The  Body  of  the  Letter.  Begin  at  once.  Avoid 
such  expressions  as  "Yrs  of  the  26th  inst.  at  hand,  and 
hasten  to  reply."  Nothing  is  to  be  gained  by  their  use. 
They  are  not  good  English,  nor  good  sense.  Do  not 
be  afraid  of  the  pronouns  "I"  and  "We." 

Be  brief,  yet  complete.  Be  clear.  Look  after  the 
proportions  and  emphasis.  Use  well-developed  para- 
graphs. If  you  make  inquiries,  ask  real  questions.  In 
answering  questions  do  it  with  care.  To  insure  clear- 
ness, it  may  be  necessary  sometimes  to  repeat  the  ques- 
tions you  are  answering. 

Always  take  time  to  be  courteous. 

Remember  that  the  body  of  your  letter  should  be  a 
composition  that  will  stand  the  tests  of  rhetoric  and,  if 
need  be,  of  the  laws  of  the  state. 

5.  The  Complimentary  Close.  This  is  also  a  relic  of 
former  times,  when  the  close  was  elaborate.  It  is  much 
briefer  to-day.  The  participial  closing  is  permitted  in 
business  letters.  The  common  and  approved  forms  are : 
"Yours  truly,"  "Yours  very  truly,"  "Yours  respect- 
fully," and  the  like.  Such  expressions  as  "Yrs  &c" 
are  taboo. 


158  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

6.  The  Signature.  In  business  letters  it  is  essential 
to  use  one's  regular  or  bank-check  signature. 

Women  sign  business  letters  by  using  their  own  name, 
as  "Mary  Powers, "  or  "Mrs.  Mary  Powers."  If  a  mar- 
ried woman  wishes  to  indicate  that  she  is  married,  she 
signs  her  name  as  above,  and  then  at  the  left  hand  and 
a  little  below  the  signature,  writes,  "Mrs.  John  W. 
Powers."  If  the  latter  is  not  done  the  inference  would 
be  that  Mrs.  Mary  Powers  is  a  widow. 

The  address  may  be  repeated  below  the  signature,  if 
desired,  but  it  is  not  necessary. 

Pages  should  be  carefully  numbered  and  arranged 
before  folding. 

The  following  is  a  typical  business  letter  of  the  kind 
known  as  a  sales  letter.  It  is  also  an  advertising  letter 
soliciting  trade. 

Joseph  N.  Goodyear 

HIGH    CLASS    SHOES 

169  Russell  Street,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 

April  16,  1918 
Mr.  William  P.  Sloan, 

187  Summit  Avenue, 
Rochester,  N.  Y. 
Dear  Sir: 

If  you  want  to  secure  style,  comfort, 
quality,  satisfaction,  and  long  wear  in  your  next 
pair  of  shoes,  it  will  pay  you  to  go  through  the 
catalogue  recently  mailed  you  of  the  Johnson- 
Cochrane  shoes  carefully  and  to  familiarize  your- 
self with  this  make  of  shoes  for  your  own  wear. 


LETTER  WRITING  159 

The  Johnson-Cochrane  shoes  are  known  the 
country  over  for  their  distinctive  style  and  for 
the  satisfaction  they  give.  They  represent  the 
best  value  in  shoes  that  you  can  possibly  se- 
cure. In  addition,  they  are  thoroughly  guar- 
anteed in  all  respects — and  this  feature  alone, 
as  you  well  know,  means  a  great  deal  to  you 
in  shoe  satisfaction — for  you  have  only  to 
mention  any  defects  in  workmanship  or  in  fit, 
and  your  purchase  will  be  made  good  to  you. 

At  our  shop  you  will  find  a  complete  stock  of 
these  most  excellent  shoes,  and  among  them 
there  is  sure  to  be  a  pair  that  was  made  for 
your  feet  and  will  suit  you  exactly  in  leather, 
style,  and  fit.  When  you  buy  them  you  will 
be  sure  of  having  a  shoe  for  once  in  your  life 
that  is  comfortable,  stylish  in  appearance,  and 
satisfactory  in  every  detail — even  the  smallest. 

We  do  not  want  you  to  take  our  word  alone 
for  this.  Just  drop  into  our  shop  to-morrow, 
if  you  can,  or  at  your  first  opportunity,  and 
look  over  our  line  and  convince  yourself  that 
you  will  secure  the  best  possible  shoe  value 
by  buying  your  shoes  here  in  the  future. 

There  are  five  good  reasons  why  you  and 
every  member  of  your  family  should  buy  your 
shoes  here:  style,  comfort,  quality,  scientific 
fitting,  and  superior  service. 

At  least  come  in  and  see  what  we  have  to 
offer.  You  will  be  under  no  obligation  to  buy. 
Our  spring  styles  are  just  in — some  are  unus- 
ually attractive. 

Yours  very  truly, 

Joseph  N.  Goodyear, 
Shoe  Specialist. 


160  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

An  analysis  of  the  foregoing  letter  reveals  the  fact 
that  it  complies  with  the  requirements  for  such  letters. 
It  is  courteous.  It  seeks  to  appeal  to  the  person  ad- 
dressed from  his  point  of  view  and  hence  makes  him 
feel  that  the  seller  really  wants  to  serve  him.  The  letter 
is  coherent.  The  arguments  are  such  as  appeal  to  men 
who  are  careful — quality,  good  value,  guarantee.  There 
are  no  extravagant  statements  or  exaggerated  argu- 
ments. The  beginning  and  the  ending  are  both  well 
calculated  to  arouse  attention  and  to  make  a  favorable 
appeal.  The  whole  tone  of  the  letter  is  of  the  sort  that 
inspires  confidence  and  is  likely  to  get  results. 

But  little  need  be  said  concerning  the  other  business 
forms.  Letters  making  inquiries  should  be  as  short  as 
possible,  but  should  be  very  clear.  They  should  be 
requests,  not  demands.  Replies  to  such  letters  should 
possess  the  same  characteristics. 

Even  in  letters  of  complaint  the  tone  must  be  kindly 
and  courteous,  even  though  unpleasant  things  have  to 
be  said.  Nothing  is  ever  gained  by  losing  one's  tem- 
per. In  a  letter  there  is  greater  need  for  self-control 
than  in  speech.  In  replying  to  letters  of  complaint, 
remember  that,  however  trivial  the  complaint  may 
seem  to  you,  it  is  important  to  the  one  who  made  it 
and  that  you  should  be  respectful  and  patient.  The 
same  is  true  in  the  case  of  letters  requesting  payment 
and  " hurry  up"  letters,  where  there  has  been  delay  in 
making  shipment — they  should  be  treated  respectfully. 
Tact,  common  sense,  and  good  judgment  will  prevent 


LETTER  WRITING  161 

serious  trouble.  Even  though  one  side  may  try  to  make 
trouble,  the  other  side  may  prevent  its  materializing 
if  it  refuses  to  stoop  to  the  lower  level. 

Exercises  in  Letter  Writing 

1.  Write  a  friendly  letter  to  one  whom  you  have  not  seen  for  two 
years  and  who  has  gone  to  the  Pacific  coast,  telling  of  a  striking 
incident  of  your  last  vacation  trip. 

2.  Write  a  letter  to  one  in  another  city  whom  you  want  to 
persuade  to  go  to  the  same  college  you  have  decided  to  enter. 
Give  reasons  why  you  think  he  ought  to  go  where  you  do  and 
answer  some  objections  he  may  have  made. 

3.  Write  a  letter  to  a  distant  cousin  in  England.  He  has  never 
been  to  America  and  has  asked  you  to  give  a  full  account  of  school 
life  here. 

4.  Write  a  letter  of  congratulation  to  a  friend  who  has  received 
some  high  honor. 

5.  Write  a  note  of  condolence  to  one  who  has  lost  his  mother. 
Be  careful  to  say  the  right  thing  and  to  say  it  in  the  best  possible 
way. 

6.  Write  a  courteous  and  tactful  letter  to  secure  the  return  of  a 
very  valuable  book  which  has  been  borrowed  and  kept  for  six 
months. 

7.  Write  an  application  for  a  position  in  a  bank,  where  you  have 
heard  there  is  a  vacancy.  Tell  of  your  education,  business  experi- 
ence, references,  and  wherever  else  you  think  wise.  Remember  you 
are  asking  a  favor  from  those  who  are  under  no  obligation  to  you. 

8.  Write  a  letter  to  a  stranger  in  reply  to  the  following  adver- 
tisement : 

WANTED — a  boy,  between  sixteen  and  eighteen  years 
old,  to  help  in  the  office  of  a  wholesale  grocery  store  from 
2  to  6  p.m.  Wages,  six  dollars  a  week.  Persons  answer- 
ing this  advertisement  must  apply  in  writing  and  mention 
satisfactory  references. 

The  Eureka  Grocery  Company, 
117  Jefferson  Street. 

9.  Write  a  letter  complaining  of  the  delay  in  receiving  an  order 
of  goods  which  should  have  been  received  a  week  ago. 


162  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

10.  Write  a  formal  invitation  in  which  Mr.  and  Mrs.  John  Lloyd 
Boyd  invite  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Charles  Clifford  to  dinner  at  their 
home,  118  East  Sixty-fourth  Street,  at  seven  o'clock,  Friday,  May 
the  sixteenth. 

11.  Write  an  acceptance  to  the  same  invitation. 

12.  Decline  it. 

13.  Using  the  same  name,  write  an  invitation  to  the  wedding 
of  their  daughter,  Mary  Louise,  to  Ensign  Robert  Charles  Frost, 
U.S.N. 

14.  Prepare  copy  for  engraver  for  formal  announcement  of  the 
same  ceremony. 

15.  Write  a  telegram,  limiting  yourself  to  ten  words,  in  which 
you  announce  your  arrival  at  some  distant  city,  upon  a  certain 
train,  and  ask  to  be  met  at  the  station  to  make  an  appointment 
for  a  business  engagement. 

16.  Write  a  cablegram  of  five  words  announcing  your  safe 
arrival  in  London  after  a  stormy  passage. 

17.  Write  an  advertisement  for  a  lost  dog.  Describe  him  for 
identification,  telling  the  name  he  recognizes.     Offer  reward. 

18.  Write  a .  news-letter  advertisement  of  one  hundred  words 
to  create  a  demand  for  a  vacuum  cleaner. 

19.  Write  a  sales  letter  to  interest  some  one  in  an  insurance  com- 
pany of  which  you  are  an  agent. 

20.  Write  a  follow-up  letter  upon  the  same  subject  seeking  an 
appointment. 

21.  Write  a  letter  complaining  to  a  mail-order  house  that  some 
goods  you  have  purchased  are  not  as  represented  in  the  catalogue. 

22.  Write  such  a  letter  as  the  mail-order  house  might  send  you 
to  adjust  the  matter  so  as  to  satisfy  you  and  keep  your  patronage. 

23.  Write  a  letter  to  a  firm  expressing  your  belief  that  one  of  its 
clerks  has  been  guilty  of  dishonesty  in  selling  you  goods  at  a  price 
in  advance  of  what  the  firm  expected. 

24.  Write  a  letter  exonerating  an  employee  whom  you  believe  to 
have  been  unjustly  accused  of  fraudulent  dealings.  Give  your 
evidence  or  authority  for  your  belief. 

25.  Write  a  letter  to  the  president  of  the  college  you  hope  to 
enter,  the  same  college  your  father  attended,  asking  his  advice 
concerning  the  course  you  should  take.  Tell  what  your  aims  are. 
Remember  that  such  a  letter  should  be  something  between  a 
business  and  a  friendly  one. 

26.  Write  a  letter  of  apology  to  your  teacher  to  whom  you  have 
been  discourteous  in  your  speech. 


LETTER  WRITING  i      163 

27.  Write  a  letter  exonerating  yourself  from  a  false  charge  of 
having  handed  in  another's  composition  as  your  own.  Be  sure  to 
give  irrefutable  proof. 

28.  Write  a  steamer  letter  to  a  friend  who  is  to  cross  the  Atlantic 
for  the  first  time,  on  the  Mauretania,  which  sails  in  two  weeks. 
Your  friend,  as  you  have  reason  to  know,  is  likely  to  be  homesick 
and  fears  being  seasick.     Make  your  letter  a  real  cheery  one. 

29.  Write  a  reply,  such  as  your  friend  might  send  you,  from 
Stratford-upon-Avon,  telling  of  her  first  experiences  in  England 
and,  especially,  of  her  impressions  of  Stratford. 

30.  Write  three  other  letters  from  the  same  friend:  one  giving 
her  impressions  of  a  great  cathedral,  one  of  some  rural  scene  in  a 
historic  section,  and  one  relating  two  weeks'  sight-seeing  in  London. 

31.  Write  a  letter  to  the  Post  Office  authorities  in  some  large 
city  trying  to  trace  a  lost  parcel.  Tell  how  it  was  addressed,  the 
place  from  which  it  was  sent,  and  the  date  of  sending. 

32.  Your  house  is  for  sale.  An  acquaintance  living  at  a  distance 
has  written  you  for  a  description,  terms  of  sale,  etc.  Write  so  as  to 
satisfy  him.     Give  full  details. 

33.  Give  his  answer. 

34.  Answer  an  inquiry  from  a  friend,  of  your  own  age,  who  wants 
to  know  of  the  book  that  has  influenced  you  the  most.  Give 
enough  details  to  arouse  your  friend's  interest;  but  not  too  many, 
lest  you  take  away  some  of  his  pleasure  in  reading. 

35.  Imagine  you  have  grown  up  and  have  been  out  of  college 
ten  years.  Write  to  a  classmate  whom  you  have  not  seen  since 
graduation,  giving  three  reasons  why  he  should  attend  the  decennial 
class  reunion.     Use  such  arguments  as  to  compel  his  attendance. 

36.  Write  to  a  wealthy  graduate  of  your  school  who  is  also  a 
graduate  of  a  great  university,  urging  him  to  establish  a  scholarship 
in  his  university  for  the  benefit  of  the  pupils  of  his  own  school. 
The  scholarship  is  to  be  won  by  competition  and  to  be  open  only 
to  those  who  could  not  otherwise  go  to  college.  The  man  to  whom 
you  write  was  a  poor  boy. 

37.  The  train  upon  which  you  are  returning  from  a  vacation 
visit  has  been  wrecked.  What  telegram  would  you  send  home 
at  once  to  relieve  the  anxiety  of  your  parents?  What  letter 
would  you  send  the  first  opportunity  you  could  find  for  writing? 
You  have  been  slightly  injured.    Write  both. 

38.  Write  a  series  of  letters  and  the  replies  to  them,  by  means  of 
which  you  arrange  a  camping  party.     Your  letters  should  be  to  two 

-friends  who  do  not  reside  in  your  town;  to  two  or  three  places  to 


164  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

secure  a  camping  site;  to  two  or  more  sporting-goods  houses  for 
necessary  supplies.  Arrange  with  your  distant  friends  to  bring 
certain  supplies.  See  that  all  plans  are  perfect  up  to  the  time  of 
starting. 

39.  Write  a  letter  from  the  camp  at  the  end  of  the  first  week, 
telling  of  your  experiences,  some  of  which  have  been  exciting. 

40.  Imagine  that  you  have  entered  college.  Write  a  letter  to 
your  school  principal  telling  him  in  what  respects  you  have  found 
your  preparation  adequate,  and  point  out  two  ways  in  which  you 
would  suggest  improvements  in  the  school  curriculum.  Remember 
you  are  but  a  student  and  that  you  are  writing  to  your  former 
principal. 


CHAPTER  VI 
ORAL  COMPOSITION 

The  emphasis  recently  put  upon  oral  composition  is 
most  opportune.  Only  a  few  years  ago,  whenever  one 
spoke  of  composition,  he  invariably  meant  composition 
in  writing.  People  took  pains  with  their  writing;  they 
talked  without  regard  to  the  principles  they  were  care- 
ful to  follow  "when  they  took  pen  in  hand."  As  a 
result  their  speech  habits  encroached  upon  their  writ- 
ing, and  the  writing  suffered.  Unless  one  recognizes 
the  fundamental  principles  of  rhetoric  in  all  his  attempts 
to  express  his  thoughts  and  emotions,  he  can  never  be 
sure  of  himself.  Now,  and  most  wisely,  just  as  much 
time  is  supposed  to  be  devoted  to  oral  composition  as 
to  written.  And  the  beneficial  results  are  increasingly 
gratifying.  Oral  composition  is  no  fad.  It  has  come 
to  stay. 

And  why  should  it  not?  We  speak,  perhaps,  a  hun- 
dred times  as  often  as  we  write.  Nearly  all  our  com- 
munication with  one  another  is  oral.  To  talk  well 
should  be  considered  as  much  of  an  accomplishment 
as  to  write  well.  The  very  frequency  with  which  we 
speak  does  not  argue  that  speaking  should  receive  less 
attention  than  writing,  but  more.  The  changing  atti- 
tude toward  oral  English  is  well  illustrated  by  a  typical 

165 


166  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

incident  out  of  the  teaching  experience  of  the  present 
writer,  who  had  oral  English  in  his  classes  several  years 
before  it  became  customary.  A  young  man  came  back 
to  school  a  year  or  so  after  graduation,  and  said:  "I 
used  to  think  you  the  meanest  teacher  in  the  school 
when  you  made  us  make  impromptu  speeches  in  your 
English  class,  but  when  I  had  to  present  the  claims  of 
the  advertising  agency  I  now  represent  to  the  dignified 
board  of  directors  of  one  of  our  largest  banks,  my  heart 
went  out  to  you  in  gratitude,  for  I  could  not  have  done 
it  without  the  aid  of  oral  English  in  your  class." 

Pupils  are  quick  to  discover  a  good  thing.  The  old 
aversion  against  oral  day  is  a  thing  of  the  past;  that 
day  is  coming  to  be  one  of  the  best  of  all,  most  enjoy- 
able and  most  fruitful  in  results. 

The  day  will  come,  as  prophesied  by  a  former  high 
official  in  the  New  York  State  Department  of  English 
and  now  the  principal  of  a  well-known  normal  school, 
when  every  teacher,  in  every  department,  will  be  a 
teacher  of  English,  at  least  oral  English.  Then  people 
will  wonder  why  it  was  not  done  long  before. 

As  the  time  of  apologizing  and  explaining  oral  work 
is  passing,  we  may  put  all  our  energies  into  making  that 
work  count. 

One  of  the  first  things  to  emphasize  is  the  fact  that 
the  preparatory  work,  the  gathering  of  the  material, 
the  evaluating  process,  the  organization  of  the  material 
according  to  the  principles  of  rhetoric,  are  the  same 
whether  the  " effective  expression' '  is  to  be  written  or 
spoken.   The  speaker's  aim  is  identical  with  the  writer's. 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  167 

Both  seek  to  arouse  interest  through  a  finished  product 
characterized  by  clearness,  force,  and  elegance,  and  ap- 
pealing to  the  intellect,  the  emotions,  and  to  esthetic 
sensibilities.  Both  take  into  account  what  they  wish 
to  express  and  how  best  to  do  it,  so  as  to  influence  their 
audience  or  their  readers. 

The  Paragraph  in  Oral  Composition.  Some  contend 
that  the  paragraph  is  a  device  peculiar  to  written  com- 
position. We  maintain,  on  the  other  hand,  that  effec- 
tive speaking,  like  effective  writing,  is  dependent  upon 
ability  to  handle  the  paragraph.  If  either  kind  of  ex- 
pression demands  more  attention  to  the  paragraph 
than  the  other,  it  is  oral.  Without  the  paragraph,  oral 
expression  is  mere  rambling  talk,  convincing  no  one; 
getting  nowhere.  There  can  be  no  proper  analysis  and 
division  of  a  subject  without  paragraphing.  The  lis- 
tener needs  the  topic  sentence  to  enable  him  to  follow 
the  speaker;  the  speaker  needs  it  to  get  the  attention 
of  the  listener.  Both  need  the  development  of  the 
paragraph :  one  to  organize  his  thoughts ;  the  other  to 
comprehend  them.  Above  all,  introductory,  transi- 
tional, and  summarizing  paragraphs  are  essential  to 
hold  the  attention  and  to  make  the  thought  clear  where 
the  reasoning  is  close.  Burke,  the  master  speaker,  was 
also  the  master  of  the  use  of  the  paragraph. 

For  all  the  foregoing  reasons,  showing  the  essential 
similarity  between  oral  and  written  composition,  both 
should  be  studied  together  and  the  principles  of  rhetoric 
should  be  presented  in  the  same  way,  from  the  same 
point  of  view. 


168  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

How  Oral,  Differs  from  Written,  Expression.  Having 
seen  what  similarity  there  is  between  the  two  forms  of 
expression,  we  are  in  a  position  to  appreciate  the  dif- 
ferences. 

One  difference  between  oral  and  written  composition 
is  due  to  the  different  kind  of  appeal  made  by  the 
speaker.  He  aims  at  immediate  results.  When  his 
speech  is  over  his  opportunity  is  gone.  When  the 
writer,  on  the  other  hand,  has  finished  his  product,  his 
opportunity  to  influence  others  has  just  begun.  It  may 
go  on  indefinitely.  Every  time  he  has  a  new  reader  he 
has  a  new  chance.  If  a  reader  is  interested,  yet  fails  to 
understand  fully,  he  may  reread  until  he  does  under- 
stand. 

The  speaker,  having  a  single  opportunity,  must  make 
the  most  of  it.  The  single  opportunity  implies,  also, 
the  single  audience.  This  enables  him  to  adapt  his 
speech  to  his  audience  with  the  nicest  discrimination. 
Diction,  phrasing,  connecting,  and  transitional  words 
and  phrases,  emphasis,  and  euphony,  may  all  be  made 
to  make  the  oral  appeal  effective.  The  speaker  has  the 
added  advantage  of  watching  the  effect  of  his  speech 
upon  his  audience  while  delivering  it.  This  enables 
him  still  further  to  adapt  his  speech  to  his  hearers;  it 
enables  him  to  take  advantage  of  the  reaction  of  the 
audience  produced  by  his  words  so  that  he  may  change 
his  method  or  his  manner  during  his  speech  in  a  way 
the  writer  never  can  do. 

Oral  Diction.  Oral  diction  is  so  important  that  it 
demands  a  word  by  itself.    On  the  whole,  it  is  simpler 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  169 

than  written  diction.  A  speaker  cannot  venture  to 
use  words  with  which  he  has  reason  to  think  his  hearers 
are  unfamiliar.  While  he  should  never  "talk  down" 
to  his  audience,  neither  should  he  talk  "over  their 
heads."  A  reader  may  stop  to  consult  a  dictionary; 
a  listener  has  not  that  privilege.  Hence,  use  such  words 
as  are  presumably  within  the  comprehension  of  the 
audience. 

Picturesque  and  figurative  words,  such  as  suggest  or 
call  up  images  readily,  are  very  effective  in  speaking. 
They  enable  listeners  to  visualize  scenes  as  well  as  to 
hear  what  is  said. 

Wherever  it  is  possible,  use  concrete  words.  They 
are  always  more  vital,  more  effective,  in  oral  composi- 
tion than  abstract  words.  If  abstract  words  must 
be  used,  do  so  sparingly.  Make  them  more  alive  by 
the  use  of  figurative  expressions,  and  by  concrete 
illustrations. 

Short,  simple,  Saxon  words  are,  on  the  whole,  better 
adapted  to  oral  expression  than  longer  words  of  Latin 
derivation.  The  demand  for  variety  and  effectiveness 
calls  for  occasional  use  of  the  often  more  euphonious 
Latin  words.  When  Shakespeare  speaks  of  the  blood 
of  Duncan  he  uses  one  line  of  Latin  words  and  then 
follows  it  with  another  of  Saxon  words : 

"Will  rather  the  multitudinous  seas  incarnadine, 
Making  the  green  one  red." — Macbeth 

Oral  Phrasing.  Oral  composition  is  far  more  exact- 
ing than  written  in  sentence  structure.     Long  and  in- 


170  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

volved  loose  sentences  are  too  confusing  to  be  risked 
in  public  speaking.  The  ordinary  mind  easily  loses 
the  thread  of  thought;  interest  first  lags,  then  disap- 
pears. To  prevent  this,  let  short,  simple  sentences 
and  carefully  planned  periodic  sentences  prevail.  The 
periodic  sentence  is  adapted  for  arousing  and  sustain- 
ing the  interest  of  the  hearer.  Parallel  or  balanced 
structure  is  another  aid  to  the  listener  in  following  a 
line  of  thought.    Recall  Burke's  words,  already  quoted : 

"  Compare  the  two.  This  I  offer  to  give  you 
is  plain  and  simple ;  the  other  full  of  perplexed 
and  intricate  mazes.  This  is  mild ;  that  harsh. 
This  is  found  by  experience  effectual  for  its 
purposes;  the  other  is  a  new  project.  This  is 
universal;  the  other  calculated  for  certain  col- 
onies only.  This  is  immediate  in  its  concilia- 
tory operation;  the  other  remote,  contingent, 
full  of  hazard." 

Such  sentences  are  clear,  forceful,  and  pleasing. 
Their  parallel  structure  aids  in  producing  each  of  the 
three  qualities. 

Remember  that  compound  sentences  unite  only  ideas 
of  equal  value.  Be  careful  about  an  overuse  of  and, 
which  will  lead  to  the  use  of  compound  sentences  where 
you  really  need  a  complex  one  to  express  ideas  of  un- 
equal value  with  those  of  lesser  value  subordinated  to 
those  of  greater.  Guard  against  complicating  sentences 
unnecessarily.  Such  a  practice  is  confusing  to  you, 
and  even  more  so  to  those  who  try  to  follow  your  line 
of  thought.     Rather  than  employ  too  many  relative 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  171 

clauses,  break  your  thought  up  into  more  simple  sen- 
tences. Do  not,  however,  neglect  the  complex  sentence 
altogether.  In  many  cases  it  furnishes  the  only  way 
to  express  your  thought  relations  effectively.  Test  all 
sentences  for  clearness,  force,  and  elegance. 

Transitions.  To  aid  the  listener  in  following  you, 
give  special  attention  to  coherence  by  means  of  con- 
nectives. Do  not  take  too  much  for  granted.  When- 
ever your  thought  deviates  from  a  straight  line,  indicate 
the  new  direction.  If  you  do  not,  the  hearer  may  con- 
tinue along  the  original  line  after  you  have  left  it. 
When  he  discovers  his  mistake  he  will  also  find  that  he 
has  lost  something.  To  prevent  this  and  to  hold  in- 
terest, indicate  all  thought  relations  between  sentences 
and  between  paragraphs  by  adequate  transitional 
words.  This  is  far  more  important  in  speaking  than 
in  writing. 

Especially  important  are  expressions  of  casual  rela- 
tions and  logical  sequences.  Not  only  is  it  important 
to  use  such  words  as  then,  therefore,  hence,  for,  and  the 
like,  oftener  than  in  writing;  it  is  also  well  to  enumerate 
a  series  of  arguments,  as  Burke  does  in  mentioning  the 
six  sources  of  the  love  of  liberty  characterizing  the 
American  people,  the  four  reasons  for  not  resorting  to 
force,  and  the  four  arguments  against  Lord  North's 
plan. 

Emphasis.  One  of  the  advantages  the  speaker  has 
over  the  writer  is  his  opportunity  to  employ  the  prin- 
ciple of  emphasis  more  effectively.  In  short  speeches 
emphasize  sufficiently  by  terse  and  vital  phraseology, 


172  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

to  get  attention  and  to  bring  it  to  the  higher  plane  of 
interest,  then  work  gradually  toward  your  conclusion 
expressed  in  a  real  climax.  Put  the  strongest  point  at 
the  end,  and,  if  possible,  express  it  in  a  periodic  sen- 
tence. In  a  longer  speech,  the  same  principles  hold 
true,  together  with  this:  To  add  new  interest  and  to 
keep  it  from  waning,  plan  several  lesser  climaxes  as 
natural  stages  by  which  you  approach  the  final  and 
leading  one.  Phrase  for  ease  in  giving  oral  emphasis. 
Remember  the  value  of  the  rhetorical  question  and  the 
pause  in  delivery,  as  means  of  securing  emphasis.  Note 
the  following  from  Burke's  Speech  on  Conciliation: 

"We  see  the  sense  of  the  crown,  and  the 
sense  of  parliament,  on  the  productive  nature 
of  revenue  by  grant.  Now  search  the  same 
journals  for  the  produce  of  revenue  by  imposi- 
tion— where  is  it?  Let  us  know  the  volume 
and  the  page — what  is  the  gross,  what  is  the 
net  produce? — to  what  service  is  it  applied? 
How  have  you  appropriated  its  surplus? 
What  can  none  of  the  many  skillful  index- 
makers  that  we  are  now  employing  find  any 
trace  of  it?  Well,  let  them  and  that  rest  to- 
gether. But  are  the  journals,  which  say  noth- 
ing of  the  revenue,  as  silent  on  the  discontent? 
Oh,  no !  a  child  may  find  it.  It  is  the  melan- 
choly burden  and  blot  of  every  page." 

Denotation  and  Connotation  in  Oral  Composition. 
Denotation  and  connotation  have  such  bearing  upon 
oral  composition  as  to  deserve  special  consideration. 
As  we  have  seen,  clearness  depends  upon  denotation, 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  173 

upon  using  exact  words  to  embody  our  ideas  so  as  to 
leave  no  doubt  as  to  our  meaning.  It  is  necessary  to 
apply  this  principle  in  writing;  it  is  still  more  impor- 
tant in  speaking,  for  the  misuse  of  a  single  word  may 
so  confuse  a  listener  that  he  will  lose  the  thought  and, 
hence,  lose  interest.  He  has  no  time  to  stop  and  think 
out  "what  the  speaker  probably  means,  but  has  stated 
clumsily."  Hence,  fit  your  words  to  your  thoughts 
exactly.  Make  it  easy,  and  not  hard,[for  one  to  follow 
you.    Remember  the  need  of  denotation. 

Connotation  and  Reserve  Power.  Before  attempting 
to  speak,  be  sure  that  you  have  something  to  say,  and 
know  just  what  you  wish  to  say.  Do  not  feel  that  you 
are  "not  writing,  but  only  speaking,  and  hence  may 
leave  much  to  the  spur  of  the  moment."  The  tempta- 
tion to  do  this  is  a  most  insidious  one  for  those  who 
speak  easily.  They  are  often  inclined  to  underestimate 
the  need  of  preparation;  of  thinking,  before  beginning 
to  speak.  "Fatal  fluency  "  has  ruined  many  who  might 
have  become  good  speakers  if  they  had  not  been  mis- 
led, by  the  very  ease  of  talking,  into  thinking  that  what 
they  say  is  not  important.  The  law  of  connotation  is 
the  remedy  for  this  error. 

Connotation  tends  to  brevity;  to  making  one  word 
suffice  where  you  might  use  two  or  more.  When  you 
condense  your  language  you  make  the  most  important 
words  overflow  with  meaning.  What  they  say  pre- 
cisely they  denote;  what  they  suggest  beyond  that, 
they  connote.  The  overflow  of  meaning  is  the  conno- 
tation.   The  poorly  prepared  speaker  cannot  even  de- 


174  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

note  well;  he  cannot  connote  at  all.  The  well-prepared 
speaker  denotes  well,  and  connotes,  too.  His  connota- 
tion reveals  his  complete  mastery  of  his  subject.  What 
he  says  suggestively  implies  what  he  might  still  further 
say,  if  he  chose.  It  gives  a  hint  of  the  unused  reserve. 
This  always  inspires  confidence  in  a  hearer.  It  enables 
you  to  take  advantage  of  the  power  of  unsaid  things, 
things  which  have  power  because  they  are  an  appeal 
to  the  imagination  of  the  hearer,  a  fact  which  virtually 
adds  to  the  force  of  the  speaker.  Learn  to  use  the  secret 
of  the  unsaid.  Learn  the  reserve  power  of  connotation, 
which  comes  only  with  full  mastery  of  your  subject. 

The  truth  of  this  is  illustrated  by  the  way  Lady  Alice 
speaks  to  the  tempter  Comus  in  the  spirited  discussion 
between  the  two  in  Milton's  Comus.    Lady  Alice  says: 


"I  had  not  thought  to  have  unlocked  my  lips 
In  this  unhallowed  air,  but  that  the  juggler 
Would  think  to  charm  my  judgment,  as  mine  eyes, 
Obtruding  false  rules  pranked  in  reason's  garb. 
I  hate  when  Vice  can  bolt  her  arguments, 
And  Virtue  has  no  tongue  to  check  her  pride. 
Impostor!  .  .  . 

Shall  I  go  on? 
Or  have  I  said  enow?  .  .  . 
Fain  would  I  something  say — yet  to  what  end? 
Thou  hast  nor  ear,  nor  soul  to  apprehend.  .  .  . 
Thou  art  not  fit  to  hear  thyself  convinced. 
Yet,  should  I  try,  the  uncontrolled  worth 
Of  this  pure  cause  would  kindle  my  rapt  spirits 
To  such  a  flame  of  sacred  vehemence 
That  dumb  things  would  be  moved  to  sympathize, 
And  the  brute  Earth  would  lend  her  nerves,  and  shake, 
Till  all  thy  magic  structures  reared  so  high 
Were  shattered  into  heaps  o'er  thy  false  head." 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  175 

The  force  of  her  unsaid,  connoted  words  is  felt  by 
the  shrewd  Comus,  for  he  says: 

"She  fables  not.     I  feel  that  I  do  fear 
Her  words  set  off  by  some  superior  power; 
And,  though  not  mortal,  yet  a  cold  shuddering  dew 
Dips  me  all  o'er." 

Make  every  word  count.  Most  speeches  are  but  a 
few  minutes  long;  in  the  business  world  a  very  few. 
Eliminate  every  word  that  seems  desirable,  but  not 
absolutely  necessary.  Remember  that  when  you  can 
gain  in  connotation  at  the  expense  of  denotation,  it  is 
well  to  sacrifice  the  denotation,  for  it  is  a  gain  in  force. 
Let  your  words  be  few,  vital,  concrete,  forceful  through 
connotation,  apt,  and  euphonious. 

Planning  for  Oral  Composition.  While  it  is  not  al- 
ways advisable  to  write  out  one's  speeches,  lest  he 
should  be  hampered  by  trying  to  remember  the  exact 
written  words,  a  definite  plan  is  essential.  One  cannot 
make  a  good  plan  without  analyzing  his  subject,  but 
the  very  analysis  of  the  subject  furnishes  all  the  neces- 
sary material  for  a  plan.  The  making  of  a  plan  or  out- 
line enables  the  speaker  to  eliminate  all  irrelevant 
material,  and  so  secure  unity;  it  enables  him  to  arrange 
the  essential  material  logically  and  with  the  proper 
subordination  of  the  subheadings  to  the  main  headings, 
and  so  secure  coherence;  and  it  provides  the  best  way 
to  indicate  proportion  and  emphasis.  Make  the  plan 
as  indicated  on  page  375. 

When  the  plan  is  made,  study  how  to  develop  it 
orally,  bearing  in  mind  what  has  been  said  about  oral 


176  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

diction,  oral  phrasing,  and  the  paragraph  in  oral  com- 
position. Study  to  guard  against  overdevelopment  of 
any  part  of  the  plan  at  the  expense  of  the  other  parts. 
Develop  each  part  in  proportion  to  its  relative  value, 
as  indicated  in  the  plan. 

These  considerations  comprise,  in  a  general  way,  the 
intellectual  preparation  in  shaping  the  raw  material  of 
ideas  and  emotions  into  a  speech  for  oral  composition. 
All  this  is  essential  as  a  start  toward  the  finished  prod- 
uct— a  speech — but  it  is  not  the  finished  product.  You 
have  something  to  say  and  you  have  a  plan  according 
to  which  to  say  it.  It  becomes  a  speech  only  when  it 
is  spoken,  and  a  good  speech  only  when  it  is  so  effec- 
tively delivered  that  all  within  reach  of  it  hear  every 
word,  and  are  impressed  intellectually  and  emotion- 
ally sufficiently  to  make  them  think  and  feel  somewhat 
as  the  speaker  does. 

We  now  come  to  the  delivery  and  what  it  involves. 

The  Essentials  of  Good  Speaking.  The  essentials  of 
good,  effective  speaking,  are:  self-mastery,  poise,  proper 
breathing,  vocalization,  gestures,  and  an  adaptation  of 
the  speaker  to  his  audience. 

Self-mastery.  The  first  difficulty  to  overcome  is 
that  best  expressed  by  the  word  self-consciousness.  It 
is  not  an  easy  fault  to  master,  but  it  must  be  over- 
come. As  long  as  one  is  self-conscious  he  is  mastered 
by  all  his  bodily  parts,  which  should  be  under  his  con- 
trol and  capable  of  doing  his  bidding.  When  the  aver- 
age young  person  first  faces  an  audience  made  up  of  his 
classmates,  he  experiences  a  most  uncomfortable  com- 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  177 

plication  of  feelings.  When  he  goes  from  his  seat  to 
the  front  of  the  room,  the  distance  seems  miles;  when 
he  faces  his  classmates  they  appear  to  have  grown  in 
size  and  in  numbers,  they  seem  to  be  looking  quite 
through  him,  and  he  feels  sure  they  are  most  unkindly 
critical;  he  becomes  conscious  of  his  feet  and  does  not 
know  what  to  do  with  them,  so  he  does  the  wrong 
thing — he  does  not  stand  upon  them,  but  moves  about 
continually  and  gets  nervous;  his  hands  are  in  the  way; 
he  puts  them  behind  him,  in  front  of  him,  in  his  pockets, 
everywhere,  and  his  nervousness  increases;  his  whole 
body  seems  in  the  way,  and  he  tries  to  get  it  out  of  the 
way  by  attempting  all  sorts  of  wrong  attitudes;  and 
his  nervousness  increases;  thinking  so  much  of  himself 
— feet,  hands,  body — his  mind  balks,  and  the  ideas  he 
thought  he  had  disappear,  and  his  nervousness  becomes 
painfully  acute.  As  to  his  voice,  he  is  not  sure  that  he 
has  any.  His  nervousness  has  dried  his  lips.  He  has 
forgotten  what  he  meant  to  say,  and  when  he  speaks 
he  says  what  does  not  seem  to  the  point,  and  probably 
is  not,  and  he  gives  up  and  goes  to  his  seat,  a  nervous 
wreck.  He  has  come  to  the  conclusion  that  oral  day  is 
a  time  of  torture  which  his  imagination  and  his  feelings 
magnify,  until  he  decides  he  is  hopeless  as  a  speaker. 
He  is  in  a  bad  way.  Fortunate  indeed  is  he  who  has 
not  had  any  such  experiences;  more  fortunate  still  is 
he  who  has  had  them  and  has  learned  to  look  upon 
them  only  as  a  challenge  to  make  him  exert  himself 
until  he  has  gained  mastery  over  his  unruly  members, 
over  himself.    And  it  can  be  done. 


I78r  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

The  secret  of  self-consciousness  and  of  its  attendant 
evils,  as  some  of  us  know  from  painful  experience,  is 
timidity.  We  are  afraid.  We  fear  we  may  fail;  we 
fear  criticism;  we  fear  we  may  be  laughed  at.  And  he 
who  fears  being  laughed  at  generally  is.  He  invites  it. 
Fear  always  unfits  us  for  everything.  Our  whole  body 
is  enslaved  to  fear.  We  seem  partially  paralyzed.  We 
cannot  act  normally.  We  become  the  victims  of  our- 
selves. "Bashfulness"  has  been  called  "  panic-stricken 
conceit."  The  chief  characteristic  of  the  self-conscious, 
fear-stricken,  bashful  individual  is  a  loss  of  will  power. 

How  can  you  overcome  self-consciousness  and  gain 
self-mastery?  In  the  first  place,  make  up  your  minds 
that  it  is  shameful  to  yield  to  fear  and  timidity  and  that 
you  will  summon  all  your  common  sense  and  all  your 
will  power  to  become  master.  The  masterful  will  over- 
comes all  obstacles.  Make  it  a  matter  of  justifiable 
pride  to  be,  and  to  appear,  yourself.  Be  natural.  You 
can  probably  talk  among  your  friends  at  home.  You 
can  say  what  you  want  to  say.  Your  classmates  are 
your  friends  too.  They  have  the  same  problems  that 
you  are  trying  to  solve.  If  you  go  about  your  task 
naturally,  and  as  if  you  do  not  care  what  others  may 
think  so  long  as  they  listen,  you  will  soon  find  that 
your  self -consciousness  has  gone  and  that  you  can  com- 
mand your  powers  and  use  them. 

Allowing  fear  to  control  one  when  he  has  something 
to  do,  is  really  yielding  to  a  very  selfish  feeling.  Such 
selfishness  prevents  one  from  being  his  best  self.  It 
distorts  one's  view.    It  magnifies  difficulties.    It  creates 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  179 

purely  imaginary  obstacles.  It  makes  one  feel  like  the 
boy  we  have  described.  But  if  you  " think  success," 
have  one  unwavering  aim,  believe  in  your  strength, 
and  hold  to  the  truth  of  the  saying  that  "  where  there's 
a  will  there's  a  way  " ;  if  you  say  "I  ought,  I  can,  I  mill," 
imaginary  obstacles  will  vanish,  magnified  difficulties 
will  dwindle  and  become  challenges  to  spur  you  on, 
and  your  distorted  view  will  become  normal  and  sane 
and  will  encourage  you.  You  will  succeed,  and  your 
success  will  render  your  next  attempt  still  easier  and 
more  effective. 

Self-mastery,  resulting  in  self-confidence,  is  abso- 
lutely essential  for  successful  effort  along  all  lines.  The 
one  who  magnifies  difficulties  and  then  yields  to  them 
never  amounts  to  anything  in  life.  The  one  who  gains 
self-mastery,  with  a  just  and  reasonable  pride,  but  with- 
out vanity,  has  learned  the  secret  of  accomplishment  in 
whatever  he  undertakes.  Self-mastery  is  the  first  step 
toward  successful  speaking.  It  means  that  you  can 
use  all  your  powers  and  succeed. 

Practice  in  oral  expression  is  the  best  way  to  get  rid 
of  the  pernicious  self-consciousness  which  incapacitates 
one  for  doing  his  best,  while  at  the  same  time  it  enables 
the  speaker  to  concentrate  all  his  energies  upon  his 
task  and  so  accomplish  it. 

Poise.  One  of  the  first  things  for  the  speaker  to  learn 
is  that  he  does  not  speak  with  his  voice  alone,  but  with 
his  whole  body.  However  well  a  speaker  may  be  able 
to  use  his  voice,  he  will  fail  to  make  a  good  impression 
if  he  stands  awkwardly,  is  slouchy  or  fidgety.     Emer- 


180  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

son's  words,  slightly  modified,  are  to  the  point:  "Your 
attitude  speaks  so  loud  that  I  cannot  hear  what  you 
say."  Bad  attitude  discounts  one's  message  at  least 
one  half.    Let  your  whole  personality  speak. 

Poise  is  the  result  of  self-control.  It  means  what  we 
call  a  good  bearing.  Stand  erect,  both  feet  on  the  floor, 
one  slightly  in  advance  of  the  other.  Shift  the  position, 
in  a  natural  manner,  occasionally.  Let  your  hands 
hang  at  your  sides.  Relax  your  fingers.  Do  not  twitch 
or  wriggle  them;  it  is  a  sign  of  nervousness.  Draw 
your  shoulders  back;  it  gives  evidence  of  firmness  and 
independence.  Elevate  your  chest;  it  aids  proper 
breathing  and  prevents  obtruding  the  abdomen.  Hold 
your  head  erect,  but  slightly  inclined  forward.  Do  not 
look  at  the  floor  or  the  ceiling.  Face  your  audience 
frankly.  Let  your  whole  bearing  be  earnest,  sympa- 
thetic, sincere,  and  vital.  Do  these  things  and  your 
personality  will  predispose  your  audience  to  listen. 
You  will  have  won  the  first  step. 

Do  not  stand  upon  one  foot,  with  the  other  twisted 
around  behind  it.  Do  not  put  your  hands  into  your 
pockets;  do  not  act  as  if  you  were  trying  to  find  a  place 
to  conceal  them.  Do  not  play  with  your  watch  chain 
or  anything.  Do  not  loll;  lolling  indicates  laziness, 
lack  of  interest  and  of  conviction.  Do  not  throw  your 
head  too  far  back;  it  indicates  haughtiness  and  antago- 
nizes your  listeners.  Do  not  lean  upon  anything,  or 
act  as  if  you  wanted  to.  Do  not  change  your  attention 
suddenly  from  one  part  of  your  audience  to  another; 
to  do  so  looks  as  if  you  were  troubled,  and  the  audience 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  181 

will  be  tempted  to  look  around  and  have  their  interest 
diverted.  Do  not  do  anything  to  weaken  your  position 
or  to  attract  attention  to  yourself.  Do  not  overdo 
your  efforts  to  be  natural  and  easy.  Conceal  your  art. 
Try  not  to  use  your  handkerchief.  Do  not  scratch 
your  head.  If  you  must  glance  at  the  clock,  do  not 
advertise  the  fact.  Let  your  self -control  manifest  itself 
in  poise. 

Proper  Breathing.  Poise  aids  breathing.  When  one 
stands  erect,  with  shoulders  well  back,  chest  elevated, 
and  chin  drawn  slightly  in,  he  is  in  the  best  attitude 
for  proper  breathing.  Proper  breathing  means  deep 
breathing,  through  the  nostrils.  "  Getting  out  of 
breath"  is  both  a  cause  and  a  result  of  nervousness. 
It  means  that  one  does  not  fill  the  lungs  sufficiently  to 
furnish  the  air  needed  for  vocalization.  One  cannot 
speak  without  an  ample  supply  of  air  in  the  lungs  any 
more  than  he  can  play  an  organ  when  the  bellows  are 
empty.  Deep  breathing  alone  enables  one  to  produce 
rich  chest  tones.  Take  deep  breaths  regularly,  making 
them  coincide  as  far  as  possible  with  the  natural  pauses 
in  speaking,  and  you  will  not  get  out  of  breath,  nor 
have  to  resort  to  short,  irregular  breaths,  which  in- 
variably affect  both  the  quantity  and  the  quality  of 
the  vocalization.  When  one  acquires  the  habit  of 
breathing  deeply  at  all  times,  he  will  find  no  difficulty 
in  breathing  properly  while  speaking. 

Never  breathe  through  the  mouth.  It  means  a  lack 
of  breath  control  and  it  results  in  dryness  of  the  mouth, 
rendering  speech  both  difficult  and  ©f  a  poor  quality. 


182  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

Vocalization.  While  vocalization  properly  belongs  to 
elocution,  a  few  simple  suggestions  must  here  be  given. 

Vocalization  is  actual  speaking.  It  means  such  a  use 
of  the  vocal  organs  as  to  produce  sounds  effectively; 
that  is,  so  that  others  may  hear  distinctly  and  be 
pleased.  The  voice  is  the  means  of  conveying  thought 
from  one  mind  to  another  orally.  The  voice  is  the  most 
wonderful  musical  instrument  in  the  world.  It  is  ca- 
pable of  marvelous  development.  When  one  knows 
how  to  use  his  voice  he  can  impress  his  hearers  far 
more  than  a  writer  can  influence  his  readers.  Conse- 
quently the  speaker  has  a  great  advantage  over  the 
writer. 

What  we  have  already  spoken  of — the  matter  of 
self-control,  poise,  proper  breathing — constitute  favor- 
able conditions  for  speaking,  but  nothing  more.  With- 
out the  actual  speaking  they  are  of  little  avail. 

Some  few  people  are  endowed  with  good  voices;  most 
have  to  train  their  voices.  He  who  has  the  good 
natural  voice,  of  course,  has  a  great  advantage  over 
him  who  has  not,  but  training  will  accomplish  aston- 
ishing results  for  all.  The  child  begins  with  child's 
talk,  naturally,  but  if  he  is  properly  taught  he  will 
soon  learn  to  get  over  such  careless  expression.  The 
only  difficulty  is  that  so  many  think  they  can  speak 
when  they  cannot.  They  do  not  begin  to  use  their 
voices  up  to  their  capacity.  This  is  often  due  to  care- 
lessness and  slovenly  habits  of  speaking;  sometimes  it 
amounts  to  having  what  is  called  "an  impediment" 
and  to  stuttering.    These  defects,  generally  accompa- 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  183 

nied  by  excessive  nervousness,  tend  to  make  one  self- 
conscious  and  to  exaggerate  his  defects.  He  gets  dis- 
couraged. He  feels  that  he  can  never  learn  to  speak 
and  often  gives  up  trying.  But  there  is  no  need  for 
discouragement.  One  needs  to  take  himself  in  hand, 
face  his  problem,  exert  his  will,  and  gain  mastery  of  his 
powers  of  speech.    It  can  be  done. 

If  one  practices  clear  enunciation  and  articulation  in 
all  his  speaking,  he  will  gain  control  of  his  voice  and 
learn  to  speak.  If,  however,  he  has  allowed  himself  to 
fall  into  bad  habits,  he  will  need  more  strenuous  treat- 
ment. He  will  need  to  get  away  by  himself,  preferably 
out  of  doors,  and  practice  vocal  exercises.  It  has 
become  hackneyed  to  refer  to  Demosthenes,  but  still 
his  overcoming  by  putting  pebbles  in  his  mouth  and 
shouting  to  the  waves  of  the  sea  ought  to  encourage 
all  who  would  overcome  their  defects.  One  of  the  best 
teachers  of  oral  expression  of  a  generation  ago,  a  man 
connected  with  a  leading  university,  used  to  take  his 
boys  out  into  the  woods  far  from  a  house  or  any  sign 
of  civilization,  and  have  them  run  through  the  musical 
scale,  pronounce  the  vowels,  then  difficult  consonants, 
then  difficult  words,  such  as  have  been  called  "lip 
twisters,"  and  finally  he  would  have  them  speak  sen- 
tences, over  and  over,  until  they  mastered  them,  and 
they  could  go  through  a  whole  speech.  That  man's 
pupils  learned  to  speak.  Learning  to  speak  is  largely 
a  matter  of  overcoming  defects  in  the  use  of  the  vocal 
organs  and  then  in  developing  facility  and  power  in 
the  full  use  of  those  organs. 


184  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

Two  Aims  in  Voice  Training.  The  two  aims  in  voice 
training  are  to  produce  the  desired  sounds  clearly  and 
agreeably.  To  accomplish  the  first  aim,  you  cannot  do 
better  than  follow  the  example  of  the  teacher  men- 
tioned in  the  preceding  paragraph.  The  chief  cause  of 
the  lack  of  clearness  is  keeping  the  mouth  too  much 
closed,  so  that  one  mumbles,  giving  forth  an  indistinct 
sound  instead  of  a  definite  one.  If  the  throat  is  con- 
tracted, if  the  jaw  is  set  so  that  we  might  call  it  " heavy  " 
and  unwieldy,  if  the  teeth  are  kept  too  close  together, 
the  column  of  air  coming  from  the  lungs  is  interfered 
with  and  fails  to  produce  the  sound  it  should.  The 
lips,  the  teeth,  the  tongue,  the  palate,  all  unite  in  de- 
termining the  kind  of  sound  produced.  They  might  be 
likened  to  the  stops  of  an  organ.  They  must  be  under 
control,  easy  and  immediate  control,  or  they  may  hin- 
der the  very  thing  one  wants  to  produce  by  their  aid. 
At  first  do  not  think  of  words,  but  of  sounds  repre- 
sented by  syllables.  Run  through  the  musical  scale, 
the  vowels,  the  alphabet,  all  conceivable  kinds  of  com- 
binations of  vowels  and  consonants,  always  aiming  to 
produce  clear  and  distinct  sounds  and  keeping  at  it 
until  you  can  produce  not  only  sounds,  but  can  control 
and  combine  them  into  speech.  Sound  is  produced  by 
the  column  of  air  passing  between  the  vocal  cords,  but 
it  is  only  sound,  differing  but  little  from  the  sound  pro- 
duced by  animals.  Man  can  control,  and  combine,  and 
accentuate,  and  modify  these  simple  sounds,  until  he 
can  produce  the  elements  of  speech:  vowels  and  con- 
sonants.    The  vowel,  or  open  sounds,  are  made  by 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  185 

changing  the  relative  positions  of  the  various  speech 
organs,  while  the  consonant  sounds  are  produced  by 
repressing  and  restricting  the  vowel  sounds.  Hence 
the  need  of  practice  to  acquire  skill  and  even  mastery 
in  producing  these  primary  sounds,  the  elements  of 
speech,  and  then  in  going  on  until  one  can  master  the 
combination  of  vowels  and  consonants  into  words. 
After  that  the  combination  of  words  into  sentences 
and  the  sentences  into  the  larger  elements  will  be  com- 
paratively easy.  Manifestly,  though,  the  first  step  is  to 
limber  up  the  mouth  and  to  learn  to  change  its  shape 
so  as  to  produce,  unerringly,  the  elements  of  speech. 

Enunciation  and  Articulation.  When  we  come  to 
words,  made  of  syllables,  which  in  turn  are  combina- 
tions of  vowels  and  consonants,  we  see  the  need  of 
enunciation  and  of  articulation,  which  are  often  used 
synonymously,  but  should  be  distinguished.  Enuncia- 
tion means  speaking  each  syllable  distinctly.  You 
enunciate,  for  instance,  a  word  of  one  syllable,  as  7,  a, 
it.  Articulation  means  the  distinct  utterance  of  a  series 
of  syllables,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  show  their  combined 
effect,  making  them  into  a  word.  Proper  articulation 
enables  one  to  give  the  syllables  their  full  value,  and 
prevents  the  common  error  of  carelessly  slighting  some 
syllables  in  the  middle  of  the  word  and,  more  com- 
monly, at  the  end.  He  who  has  learned  to  articulate 
never  says  erWy  for  every,  or  comiti  for  coming. 

Pronunciation.  Pronunciation  goes  a  step  further 
than  articulation,  and  indicates  which  syllables  are 
stressed,  or  accented,  by  making  them  more  emphatic 


186  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

than  the  rest  of  the  syllables.  Pronunciation  is  partly 
a  matter  of  law  and  more  a  matter  of  usage,  and  au- 
thorities differ  concerning  the  correct  pronunciation  of 
many  words.  The  pronunciation  favored  by  any  repu- 
table dictionary,  such  as  the  New  Standard,  the  Cen- 
tury, or  Webster's  New  International,  is  always  sufficient- 
ly authoritative  for  all  except  those  finicky  persons  who 
speak  of  the  dictionary,  meaning  the  one  they  know 
superficially,  and  who  do  not  know  that  authorities 
differ.  A  most  valuable  book  on  pronunciation  is 
Phyfe's  18,000  Words  Often  Mispronounced.  Its  chief 
value  is  that  it  gives  the  pronunciation  preferred  by 
the  majority  of  authorities,  and  where  the  differences 
are  marked  and  significant  the  authorities  are  given. 
Phyfe's  book  has  the  added  advantage  of  being  small 
and  of  saving  one  the  trouble  of  consulting  several  dic- 
tionaries. 

Pronunciation,  while  not  a  matter  of  fife  and  death — 
since  there  is  no  absolute  standard — is  of  sufficient  im- 
portance to  receive  much  more  attention  than  it  com- 
monly does.  When  one  is  careless  or  inconsistent  in 
pronouncing  his  words,  his  hearers  are  likely  to  infer 
that  he  is  careless  in  other  matters  too.  Hearers  who 
stop  to  question  about  " queer"  pronunciations  lose 
interest  in  the  thought  of  the  speaker.  Consequently 
the  matter  of  pronunciation  assumes  a  greater  impor- 
tance than  is  at  first  apparent.  It  is  always  safe  to 
take  the  pronunciation  given  the  preference  by  Phyfe. 
It  is  never  wise  to  use  original  and  bizarre  pronuncia- 
tions for  the  sake  of  being  different.    Such  a  practice 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  'l87 

always  prejudices  an  audience  against  a  speaker.  Con- 
sult a  good  dictionary,  or  Phyfe,  whenever  in  doubt. 
Study  selected  lists  of  words  commonly  mispronounced. 
Remember  that  usage  is  constantly  changing  and  that 
recent  authorities  are  best.  Settle  once  and  for  all  the 
pronunciation  of  such  common  words  as  interesting; 
never  say  interesting ;  never  say  illustrate  for  illustrate. 
Remember  that  the  tendency  is  increasingly  in  favor 
of  isolate  instead  of  isolate,  and  of  advertisement  instead 
of  advertisement.  Learn  by  practice  to  enunciate  sepa- 
rate syllables,  to  articulate  combinations  of  syllables, 
and  to  pronounce  combinations  of  syllables,  by  taking 
note  of  the  one  to  be  specially  stressed  or  accented. 

Practice  in  enunciation,  articulation,  and  pronuncia- 
tion will  eliminate  such  hindrances  to  clearness  as 
breathinesSj  which  is  caused  by  allowing  too  much  air 
to  escape  through  the  vocal  cords.  This  is  due  to  lack 
of  control  of  the  breathing.  Careful  breathing,  while 
practicing  vocal  exercises,  will  enable  one  to  use  just 
the  amount  of  breath  to  produce  the  desired  sound. 
Another  hindrance  to  clearness  of  vocalization  is  throati- 
ness,  which  is  caused  by  tightening  or  contracting  the 
throat  so  as  to  produce  a  rasping  sound  disagreeable  to 
one's  hearers  and  tiring  to  oneself.  This  is  sometimes 
called  " minister's  throat,"  because  so  many  ministers 
do  not  know  how  to  relax  and  open  the  throat  and  pre- 
vent the  tension  which  wears  them  out  and  hinders 
their  clear  enunciation.  Much  throat  tension  is  caused 
by  nervousness.  Straining  the  voice  by  speaking  in 
an  unnatural  tone  also  causes  it.     The  remedy  is  to 


188 '  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

practice  such  sounds  as  tend  to  open  the  throat  and  to 
make  it  a  passage  from  the  lungs.  He  who  talks  from 
the  chest  never  tires  his  throat  or  his  audience.  Prac- 
tice syllables  and  words  requiring  the  prolonging  of 
such  vowel  sounds  as  oo.  Byron's  words  are  excellent 
for  this  purpose: 

"Roll  on,  thou  deep  and  dark  blue  Ocean — roll!" 

Another  bad  habit  to  overcome  in  order  to  secure 
clearness  of  tone  is  called  nasality,  or  the  nasal  twang. 
It  is  produced  by  any  nasal  obstruction  and  by  an  im- 
proper use  of  the  palate  and  tongue.  When  the  soft 
palate  is  drawn  down,  or  when  the  back  part  of  the 
tongue  is  raised,  the  proper  use  of  the  nasal  cavities  as 
resonators  is  not  secured,  and  the  nasal  " twang"  re- 
sults. The  way  to  correct  this  defect  is  to  practice 
forming  sounds  which  tend  to  keep  the  back  of  the 
tongue  down.  Exercises  which  give  flexibility  to  the 
tongue  and  the  lips  will  aid  here.    Practice  the  ng  sound. 

So  much  for  clearness  in  vocalization.  Next,  notice 
how  to  secure  the  quality  of  agreeableness. 

The  Pleasing  Voice.  The  human  voice  is  an  expres- 
sion of  the  personality  of  the  speaker.  It  may  be  even 
the  reflection  of  the  soul.  Everyone  knows  the  im- 
measurable difference  between  the  voice  of  the  wholly 
uncultured  and  vulgar  person  and  the  refined  and  cul- 
tured. Even  in  the  commercial  world  one  returns  to 
the  store  where  the  clerks  have  a  pleasing  way  of 
speaking,  while  he  avoids  those  who  are  gruff  and 
harsh.     The  public  speaker  who  succeeds  must  learn 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  189 

not  only  to  be  heard  and  understood;  he  must  win  by 
the  quality  of  his  voice.  He  must  understand  the 
music  of  language;  he  must  know  the  value  of  tone, 
and  avoid  monotony. 

The  defects  already  mentioned  as  fatal  to  clearness — 
breathiness,  throatiness,  and  nasality — are  equally  dis- 
pleasing to  the  ear  and  the  aesthetic  susceptibilities  of 
the  hearer.  Hence  the  double  reason  for  overcoming 
them. 

Self-mastery  must  be  carried  to  the  point  where  it 
includes  such  control  of  the  organs  of  speech  that  one 
can  speak  with  ease.  The  state  of  mind  and  of  the 
nervous  system  have  a  great  effect  upon  speaking. 
When  one's  mind  is  at  ease  concerning  his  speaking, 
he  can  be  alert,  confident,  and  enthusiastic  concerning 
what  he  has  to  say.  He  can  speak  attractively,  elo- 
quently, effectively. 

Modulation  and  Adaptation.  We  have  seen,  while 
studying  the  qualities  of  rhetoric,  that  the  quality  of 
elegance,  or  beauty,  depends  upon  the  adaptation  of 
the  treatment  to  the  subject.  The  same  holds  true 
here.  The  first  essential  of  pleasing  speech  is  adapta- 
tion of  the  voice  to  the  subject.  Most  people  do  adapt 
their  voices  to  their  subject  in  ordinary  conversation. 
When  they  speak  in  public  they  often  become  strained 
and  artificial.  They  do  not  discriminate  between  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  subjects.  They  become  monotonous 
and  are  ineffective.  When  one  is  at  ease  and  feels  his 
subject,  he  naturally  adapts  himself,  voice  and  all,  to 
it.     The  careful  speaker  knows  the  intellectual  value 


190  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

and  feels  the  emotional  value  and  the  aesthetic  value 
of  what  he  has  to  say.  His  purpose  is  to  convey  the  same 
values  to  his  hearers.  To  do  so  he  modulates  his  voice  so 
that  it  connotes  the  emotion  back  of  it.  Modulation  is 
changing  the  tone  to  make  it  harmonious  with  the 
heart  of  the  speaker  and  with  the  subject  upon  which 
he  is  speaking.  The  good  speaker  has  sufficient  range 
of  tone  to  enable  him  to  express  any  subject  effectively, 
by  making  his  meaning  clear  and  his  emotion  forceful. 
He  can  put  himself  in  the  place  of  another  and  express 
the  other's  meaning  and  feelings  as  if  they  were  his 
own.  He  can  adapt  himself  to  all  kinds  of  subjects 
and  show  it  in  his  tone;  he  can  adapt  himself  to  Ham- 
let's soliloquy,  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  Patrick 
Henry's  speeches,  Tennyson's  The  Brook,  Poe's  Raven, 
and  to  anything  else  he  may  find  in  literature  or  in  his 
own  heart. 
The  following  are  the  commonest  qualities  of  tone: 
1.  The  Pure  Tone.  The  pure  tone  is  clear,  smooth, 
and  round.  It  is  the  ordinary  tone  of  the  well-trained 
voice  and  of  the  person  of  refinement.  All  the  breath 
is  vocalized;  there  is  no  breathiness,  no  harshness,  no 
nasality,  no  suggestion  of  unpleasantness.  The  pure 
tone  is  natural  in  all  ordinary  expression  of  thought 
except  where  it  is  accompanied  by  strong  emotion,  e.g.: 

"Grow  old  along  with  me! 
The  best  is  yet  to  be, 

The  last  of  life,  for  which  the  first  was  made: 
Our  times  are  in  his  hand 
Who  saith,  'A  whole  I  planned, 
Youth  shows  but  half;  trust  God:  see  all,  nor  be  afraid!'" 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  191 

2.  The  orotund  tone  is  the  full  chest  tone,  deep  and 
rich.  It  is  appropriate  for  the  utterance  of  the  loftiest 
emotions.  It  is  speaking  " right  out"  with  full  force, 
by  means  of  the  open  vocal  organs  used  to  their  fullest 
extent  and  yet  under  complete  control.  The  orotund 
tone  is  appropriate  for  such  passages  as  rise  to  the 
heights  of  eloquence.  It  is  like  the  tone  of  the  full 
organ,  all  stops  out.  It  is  like  the  singing  of  a  grand- 
opera  singer  rendering  the  noblest  passage  of  a  grand 
opera.  This  grand  style  should  not  be  attempted 
unless  the  occasion  is  appropriate.  There  is  little 
occasion  for  it  in  the  classroom.  To  use  it  there 
leads  to  ridiculous  effects.  It  becomes  mockery. 
But  orations,  sermons,  great  poetry,  and  impassioned 
speeches  in  dramas,  offer  abundant  occasion  for  its 
use.  Though  the  occasions  are  rare,  the  demand  is 
sufficient  to  warrant  cultivating  this  tone,  so  that  one 
can  give  the  fullest  utterance  of  his  deepest  and  his 
loftiest  emotions. 

Note  the  following  passages  from  the  masterful 
speeches  of  ex-President  Wilson: 

"For  us  there  is  but  one  choice.  We  have 
made  it.  Woe  be  to  the  man  or  group  of  men 
that  seeks  to  stand  in  our  way  in  this  day  of 
high  resolution,  when  every  principle  we  hold 
dearest  is  to  be  vindicated  and  made  secure 
for  the  salvation  of  the  nations.  We  are  ready 
to  plead  at  the  bar  of  history,  and  our  flag 
shall  wear  a  new  luster.  Once  more  we  shall 
make  good  with  our  lives  and  fortunes  the 
great    faith    to    which   we   were    born,    and 


192  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

a  new  glory  shall  shine  in   the  face  of  our 
people." 

— Woodrow  Wilson:  Flag  Day  Address  (1917) 

"  The  world  must  be  made  safe  for  democracy. 
Its  peace  must  be  planted  upon  the  tested 
foundations  of  political  liberty.  We  have  no 
selfish  ends  to  serve.  We  desire  no  conquests, 
no  dominion.  We  seek  no  indemnities  for  our- 
selves, no  material  compensation  for  the  sac- 
rifices we  shall  freely  make.  We  are  but  one 
of  the  champions  of  the  rights  of  mankind. 
We  shall  be  satisfied  when  those  rights  have 
been  made  as  secure  as  the  faith  and  the  free- 
dom of  nations  can  make  them.  ..." 

"It  is  a  distressing  and  oppressive  duty, 
gentlemen  cf  the  Congress,  which  I  have  per- 
formed in  thus  addressing  you.  There  are,  it 
may  be,  many  months  of  fiery  trial  and  sacri- 
fice ahead  of  us.  It  is  a  fearful  thing  to  lead 
this  great,  peaceful  people  into  war,  into  the 
most  terrible  and  disastrous  of  all  wars,  civili- 
zation itself  seeming  to  be  in  the  balance. 

"But  the  right  is  more  precious  than  peace, 
and  we  shall  fight  for  the  things  which  we  have 
always  carried  nearest  our  hearts — for  democ- 
racy, for  the  right  of  those  who  submit  to  au- 
thority to  have  a  voice  in  their  own  governments, 
for  the  rights  and  liberties  of  small  nations,  for 
a  universal  dominion  of  right  by  such  a  concert 
of  free  peoples  as  shall  bring  peace  and  safety  to 
all  nations  and  make  the  world  itself  at  last  free. 

"  To  such  a  task  we  can  dedicate  our  lives  and 
our  fortunes,  everything  that  we  are,  and  every- 
thing that  we  have,  with  the  pride  of  those  who 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  193 

know  that  the  day  has  come  when  America  is 
privileged  to  spend  her  blood  and  her  might  for 
the  principles  that  gave  her  birth  and  happiness 
and  the  peace  which  she  has  treasured. 
"God  helping  her,  she  can  do  no  other." 

— Woodrow  Wilson:  War  Message  (April  2,  1917) 

3.  A  third  quality  of  voice  or  tone  is  the  tremulous, 
which  is  marked  by  vibrations  giving  slight  variations 
of  pitch  in  the  utterance  of  a  word.  It  is  useful,  like 
the  tremulous  tone  of  the  violin,  to  express  emotions, 
and  when  used  with  discretion  and  sparingly  it  is  very 
effective.  It  is  used  to  express  pathetic  sentiments, 
such  as  those  of  grief,  pity,  sympathy,  tenderness,  and 
the  like,  and  also  to  express  excitement,  the  tones  of 
the  aged,  and  uncontrolled  joy. 

It  should  be  used  in  reading  the  first  stanza  of  Keats' 
Eve  of  St.  Agnes : 

"St.  Agnes  Eve — Ah,  bitter  chill  it  was! 
The  owl,  for  all  his  feathers,  was  a-cold; 
The  hare  limped  trembling  through  the  frozen  grass." 

It  is  appropriate  for  parts  of  Arnold's  The  Forsaken 
Merman : 

"Call  her  once  before  you  go — 

Call  once  yet!  • 
In  a  voice  that  she  will  know: 

'  Margaret !     Margaret ! ' 
Children's  voices  should  be  dear 
(Call  once  more)  to  a  mother's  ear; 
Children's  voices  wild  with  pain — 
Surely  she  will  come  again!" 

4.  The  aspirated  tone,  produced  by  articulating  the 
breath  instead  of  the  voice,  is  also  called  the  whisper- 


194  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

ing  quality.  It  is  effective  in  expressing  great  intensity 
of  feeling  too  deep  for  complete  utterance.  Contempt, 
scorn,  rage,  and  sometimes  wonder  and  fear,  are  best 
expressed  by  the  aspirated  tone  where  the  voice  seems 
hushed  almost  to  silence  by  the  very  intensity  of  the 
feelings. 

To  practice  this  tone,  whisper  in  a  large  room,  as  if 
trying  to  reach  an  imaginary  hearer  at  a  distance. 
With  open  throat,  breathe  deeply,  and  aspirate  the 
voice. 

Use  the  aspirated  tone  in  uttering  the  unutterable, 
the  secret,  the  mysterious,  and  the  like. 

For  examples  notice: 

To  express  secrecy  and  terror,  Macbeth  used  the 
aspirated  tone  in  the  following: 

"I've  done  the  deed!    Did'st  thou  not  hear  a  noise?" 

To  express  wonder  and  fear,  Poe  uses  the  tone  in 
The  Raven: 

"But  the  silence  was  unbroken,  and  the  stillness  gave  no  token, 
And  the  only  word  there  spoken  was  the  whispered  word  '  Lenore ! ' 
This  I  whispered,  and  an  echo  murmured  back  the  word  '  Lenore ! ' 
Merely  this  and  nothing  more." 

To  express  scorn,  note  Capensacchi's  words  concern- 
ing Pompilia  in  The  Ring  and  the  Book: 

"No  matter  for  the  sword,  her  word  sufficed 
To  spike  the  coward  through  and  through:  he  shook." 

To  express  an  almost  inexpressible  awe  Lanier  used 
the  following: 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  195 

"Ye  lispers,  whisperers,  singers  in  storms, 
Ye  consciences  murmuring  faiths  under  forms, 
Ye  ministers  meet  for  each  passion  that  grieves, 
Friendly,  sisterly,  sweetheart  leaves." 

5.  The  guttural  tone  is  the  opposite  of  the  orotund, 
and  is  appropriate  to  express  hatred,  loathing,  defiance, 
and  the  like.  It  is  used  to  express  the  feelings  of  the 
low,  the  stingy,  the  malevolent,  and  the  fiendish.  The 
guttural  tone  may  be  cultivated  by  practicing  the  utter- 
ance of  the  throat  consonants,  the  g  and  the  k  sounds. 
Practice  with  words  in  which  these  sounds  predomi- 
nate; then,  assuming  the  feelings  appropriate,  vocalize 
other  words  in  a  guttural  way.  Such  sounds  contract 
the  throat  and  so  prevent  the  utterance  of  pure  tones 
that  are  open  and  resonant.  When  one  is  choked  with 
rage,  the  attempt  to  utter  a  word  will  produce  the 
guttural  tone. 

For  examples  read  those  passages  in  which  Lady 
Macbeth  speaks  of  unsexing  herself;  in  which  Mac- 
beth would  have  "the  stars  hide  their  fires  and 
see  not  his  black  desires, "  etc.  Note  also  Shy  lock's 
words : 

"How  like  a  fawning  publican  he  looks." 

6.  The  falsetto  tone  is  an  unnatural  one,  in  which  the 
voice  is  used  beyond  its  range,  and  when  it  breaks,  as 
in  extreme  surprise,  in  screams  of  pain  or  abject  terror, 
and  in  imitating  children  and  the  aged.  It  is  the  tone 
marked  by  lack  of  mental  control,  by  shrillness,  and  by 
artificial^. 


196  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

Example: 
Shylock.  "Hath  a  dog  money!" 

"Fair  sir,  you  spit  on  me  on  Wednesday  last; 
You  spurn'd  me  such  a  day;  another  time 
You  call'd  me  dog  and  for  these  courtesies 
I'll  lend  you  thus  much  moneys?" 

Other  tones,  sometimes  mentioned,  are  the  pectoral, 
which  is  less  constrained  than  the  guttural,  and  is  used 
to  express  remorse;  and  the  nasal  tone,  used  in  express- 
ing the  peculiarities  of  the  Yankee  dialects. 

There  is  also  what  is  known  as  the  connotative  tone, 
by  means  of  which  the  speaker  intimates  that  certain 
words  used  are  to  be  considered  as  expressing  "more 
than  meets  the  ear";  that  is,  that  they  are  used  in  an 
unusual  sense,  possibly  with  a  double  meaning,  suggest- 
ing some  marked  connotation,  e.g.: 

The  word  "  courtesies "  in  the  quotation  from  the 
Merchant  of  Venice,  illustrates  the  connotative  tone 
(see  above). 

Pitch.  Besides  tone,  it  is  essential  to  define  and  illus- 
trate pitch,  which  means  the  relative  position  of  the 
voice  as  measured  by  the  musical  scale.  Each  voice 
has  its  normal  pitch,  and  the  pitch  which  is  above  the 
normal  and  that  which  is  below  the  normal.  Pitch  is 
used  to  give  variety  and  so  increase  the  power  of  ex- 
pression and  to  avoid  monotony.  The  normal  pitch 
is  used  in  ordinary,  unemotional  conversation,  and  in 
any  utterance  which  is  commonplace.  It  indicates 
calmness  and  composure.     If  one  uses  no  other  pitch 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  197 

he  cannot  hope  to  be  effective,  especially  if  he  reads  or 
speaks  of  emotional  matters  in  the  same  way.  When 
one  feels  the  emotions  of  joy,  anxiety,  enthusiasm,  or 
any  passion,  the  vocal  cords  vibrate  more  rapidly  and 
a  higher  pitch  results.  Commands  naturally  suggest  a 
higher  than  normal  pitch.  When  Cassius  says  to  Bru- 
tus, for  instance: 

"Do  not  presume  too  much  upon  my  love; 
I  may  do  that  I  shall  be  sorry  for," 

one  would  read  the  lines  with  a  rising  pitch. 

When,  on  the  other  hand,  one  voices  what  is  serious, 
grave,  solemn,  or  sad,  he  naturally  lowers  the  pitch,  as 
in  the  following: 

"Earth  to  earth,  ashes  to  ashes,  dust  to  dust." 

"Duncan  is  in  his  grave; 
After  life's  fitful  fever,  he  sleeps  well." — Macbeth 

"I  am  the  resurrection  and  the  life;  he  that  belie veth  on  me. 
though  he  die,  yet  shall  he  live." — Bible 

The  stronger  the  feeling  the  lower  the  key. 

"It  is  finished." — Bible 

"The  rest  is  silence." — Hamlet 

"When  faith  is  lost,  when  honor  dies, 
The  man  is  dead!" — Whittier:   Ichabod 

Inflections  or  Slides.  Variations  of  the  pitch  of  the 
voice  above  or  below  the  normal  pitch  are  called  inflec- 
tions or  slides.    They  are  the  means  by  which  emphasis 


198  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

is  secured  and  regulated.  One  would  soon  tire  of  any 
speaker  if  he  did  not  constantly  vary  his  pitch  of  voice. 
One  never  finds  it  easy  to  listen  to  monotony  of  any 
kind.  But  it  is  a  delight  to  hear  one  speak  when  he 
makes  himself  impressive  and  at  the  same  time  uses 
melody  to  bring  out  the  beauty  inherent  in  words  and 
in  the  voice.  He  who  can  properly  manage  his  inflec- 
tions can  both  move  his  hearers  and  please  them. 

Kinds  of  Inflections.  There  are  three  kinds  of  in- 
flection, the  upward,  or  rising  inflection;  the  downward, 
or  falling  inflection;  and  the  double  inflection,  which 
combines  the  rising  and  the  falling.  This  is  also  called 
the  circumflex. 

The  rising  inflection  is  an  upward  movement  of  the 
voice  during  the  enunciating  of  a  word.  It  is  indicated 
by  the  acute  accent  mark,  ' .  The  rising  inflection  de- 
notes doubt,  hesitation,  or  incompleteness  of  expression. 
The  voice  rises  to  introduce  an  idea  or  to  present  some- 
thing for  consideration.  The  rising  inflection  is  gen- 
erally used  upon  a  word  preceding  a  pause  within  a 
sentence,  which  indicates  the  incompleteness  of  mean- 
ing, and  it  is  used  in  asking  questions. 

"Shall  I  know  your  answer?" 

The  falling  inflection,  marked  by  the  grave  accent,  N, 
is  used  to  denote  decision  and  completeness  of  expres- 
sion. It  signifies  finality  and  hence  is  used  on  the  last 
word  of  a  declarativo  sentence.  When  used  within  the 
sentence,  to  mark  a  pause,  it  also  indicates  complete- 
ness, but  of  a  less  pronounced  degree.  This  inflection 
is  usually  appropriate  before  pauses  marked  by  semi- 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  199 

colons  and  colons  as  well  as  periods,  and  sometimes 
where  there  is  no  punctuation,  provided  the  word  so 
stressed  indicates  some  degree  of  finality. 

The  Circumflex  Inflection.  The  rising  and  falling,  or 
falling  and  rising  inflection,  indicates  a  double  idea. 
The  voice  moves  uncertainly,  up  and  down,  or  down 
and  up,  to  indicate  a  similar  action  of  the  mind.  This 
inflection  is  used  in  ironical  expressions  and  wherever 
there  is  a  double  meaning,  as  in  puns. 

"Things  have  been  strangely  borne.     The  gracious  Duncan 
Was  pitied  of  Macbeth:    marry,  he  was  dead: 
And  the  right-valliant  Banquo  walk'd  too  late; 
Whom  you  may  say,  ift  please  you,  Fleance  kill'd, 
For  Fleance  fled:   men  must  not  walk  too  late. 

How  it  did  grieve  Macbeth!    did  he  not  straight, 

In  pious  rage,  the  two  delinquents  tear, 

That  were  the  slaves  of  drink  and  thralls  of  sleep? 

Was  not  that  nobly  done?    Ay,  and  wisely  too." — Macbeth 

The  italicized  words  should  be  rendered  with  the 
circumflex  accent  to  indicate  the  irony. 

Rate  of  Speaking.  Rate  is  another  means  of  varying 
the  effect  of  speaking  and  of  getting  away  from  possible 
monotony.  It  has,  however,  a  close  relation  to  force 
and  to  pitch,  and  materially  helps  in  interpretation  of 
the  meaning  back  of  the  words.  There  are  five  rates: 
the  normal,  which  is  used  in  natural  speech;  the  fast 
and  the  very  fast,  which  mark  moderate  or  excessive 
degrees  of  excitement  and  enthusiasm;  and  the  slow 
and  very  slow,  which  mark,  respectively,  seriousness, 
dignity,  and  control;  and  profound  thought,  reverie, 
meditation,  and  the  like. 


200  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

The  normal  needs  no  illustration. 
Fast: 

"Oh,  to  be  in  England  now  that  April's  there." — Browning 
Very  fast : 

"Who  will  come  a-sailing  on  the  dark-blue  Forth, 
Who  will  come  a-sailing  when  the  wind  blows  North, 
Beating  out  from  harbor  with  a  three-reefed  sail, 
Reaching  to  the  Eastward  in  a  good  half-gale?'' 

— "The  Firth  of  Forth,"  from  Children  of  Fancy, 
by  Ian  B.  Stoughton  Holborn 

Slow: 

"And  all  my  days  are  trances, 
And  all  my  nightly  dreams 
Are  where  thy  gray  eye  glances, 

And  where  thy  footstep  gleams — 
In  what  ethereal  dances, 
By  what  eternal  streams." 

— To  One  in  Paradise:  Poe 

Very  slow: 

"To  be  or  not  to  be, — that  is  the  question." 
"Sunset  and  evening  star,  and  after  that  the  dark." 
"Holy,  holy,  holy,  Lord  God  Almighty!" 

However  rapidly  one  speaks,  he  should  not  speak  the 
individual  words  too  quickly  lest  he  fail  to  enunciate 
properly  and  so  fail  to  be  heard. 

Pauses.  Pauses  in  speaking  are  like  rests  in  music. 
They  are  essential  for  effectiveness.  The  ordinary 
pauses,  which  mark  the  grammatical  structure,  and 
are  indicated  by  punctuation  marks,  also  indicate 
emphasis,  and  so  aid  in  interpretation.    Punctuation  is 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  201 

even  more  necessary  in  speech  than  in  writing.  The 
various  minor  pauses  within  sentences  and  at  the  end 
of  sentences,  together  with  the  major  ones  at  the  ends 
of  paragraphs,  help  materially  in  making  a  listener 
understand.  They  also  serve  as  rests  and  give  time 
for  proper  transitions  to  be  felt. 

Rhetorical  pauses  are  still  more  important  than 
grammatical  ones,  for  they  are  the  ones  which  make 
the  emotional  appeals  and  so  add  force  and  proper 
emphasis. 

The  rate  of  speed  must  always  be  determined  by  a 
mastery  of  the  thought  and  emotional  content  of  what- 
ever is  to  be  given  orally.  The  same  is  true  concerning 
pauses.  It  is  possible  to  make  them  even  more  effective 
than  the  spoken  words  if  properly  placed  in  a  speech, 
as  in  the  case  of  Mark  Antony's  speech  over  the  body 
of  Caesar. 

Vocal  Emphasis  or  Force.  We  have  seen  that  em- 
phasis is  a  matter  of  position  and  is  affected  by  the 
kinds  of  words  used  and  by  figures  of  speech.  But  one 
must  know  how  properly  to  emphasize  by  the  use  cf 
the  voice.  To  fail  to  do  so  is  to  misinterpret  what  the 
words  are  intended  to  express.  Force,  or  word-empha- 
sis, is  gained  by  stressing  particular  words  or  groups  of 
words.  It  is  closely  connected  with  the  quality  of  the 
tone.  The  amount  of  force  used  must  further  be  de- 
termined by  the  size  of  the  room  and  the  size  of  one's 
audience  and  the  occasion.  Ordinarily  one  should  use 
just  enough  force  to  be  heard  without  undue  effort  on 
the  part  of  his  listeners.    Shouting  is  always  bad,  for  it 


202  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

gives  the  impression  of  a  waste  of  energy,  a  lack  cf 
control,  and  it  may  easily  become  ranting.  On  the 
other  hand,  a  weak,  effeminate  or  affected  voice  is 
wholly  ineffective.  If  a  speaker  knows  his  powers, 
knows  the  psychology  of  audiences,  and  has  common 
sense,  he  can  manage  the  matter  of  force,  provided  that 
he  fully  understands  his  subject  so  that  he  knows  what 
should  be  stressed. 

Full  force  should  be  used  when  one  would  arouse  his 
audience  to  enthusiasm,  make  a  point  emphatic,  or 
carry  his  listeners  along  with  him  at  his  own  pitch  of 
emotion. 

"With  dying  hand  above  his  head, 
He  shook  the  fragment  of  his  blade, 

And  shouted  'Victory! — 
Charge,  Chester,  charge!    on,  Stanley,  on!' 
Were  the  last  words  of  Marmion." 

— Scott:    Marmion 

"Wha  for  Scotland's  king  and  law- 
Freedom's  sword  will  strongly  draw, 
Freeman  stand,  or  freeman  fa' 
Let  him  follow  me!" 

— Burns:   Bannockburn 

Subdued  force  is  best  where  one  would  give  the  im- 
pression of  earnest  calmness,  of  reserve,  of  controlled 
emotions,  of  deep  sympathy,  and  the  like 

"Eternal  Spirit  of  the  chainless  Mind! 

Brightest  in  dungeons,  Liberty!    thou  art, 
For  there  thy  habitation  is  the  heart — 

The  heart  which  love  of  thee  alone  can  bind; 

And  when  thy  sons  to  fetters  are  consign'd — 
To  fetters,  and  the  damp  vault's  dayless  gloom, 
Their  country  conquers  with  their  martyrdom, 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  203 

And  Freedom's  fame  finds  wings  on  every  wind. 
Chillon!    thy  prison  is  a  holy  place, 

And  thy  sad  floor  an  altar — for  'twas  trod, 
Until  his  very  steps  have  left  a  trace 

Worn,  as  if  thy  cold  pavement  were  a  sod. 
By  Bonnivard!     May  none  those  marks  efface! 

For  they  appeal  from  tyranny  to  God." 

— Sonnet  on  Chillon:  Byron 

Care  should  be  taken  to  make  all  emphasis  appear 
natural;  never  artificial  or  forced.  Transitions  from 
one  degree  of  force  to  another  should  also  be  carefully 
made,  avoiding  abruptness.  Let  there  be  no  apparent 
straining  after  effect,  no  melodramatic  overdoing  of 
any  scene  described,  no  ridiculous  interpretations.  The 
matter  of  poise  is  important  in  its  relation  to  emphasis. 
Poise  suggests  mastery,  reserve,  a  promise  of  readiness 
to  rise  to  any  occasion  ready  to  meet  it  adequately. 
Let  there  be  no  dawdling,  but  always  evidence  of 
vitality. 

In  reading  poetry  one  should  remember  that  he  is 
reading  poetry,  and  that  there  is  a  more  or  less  recur- 
rence of  stress  which  aids  in  the  reading.  In  prose  one 
is  put  more  upon  his  own  resources  to  find  what  is  to 
be  stressed,  and  how.  But  study  of  the  thought  and 
the  emotional  appeal  will  help  one  over  the  difficulty. 
Remember,  however,  that  no  two  speeches  are  neces- 
sarily stressed  alike.  Let  there  be  a  study  of  each  by 
itself,  according  to  its  own  purpose,  taking  account  of 
its  own  peculiarities.  And  let  the  same  speech  be 
studied  anew  when  it  is  to  be  given  to  another  audience 
under  different  conditions.     Let  the  whole  speech  be 


204  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

so  mastered  that  its  parts  may  be  given  their  own 
proportionate  force  and  emphasis,  ever  remembering 
that  the  emphasis  of  the  parts  is  to  be  subordinated 
to  the  emphasis  of  the  whole  speech. 

Gesture.  Gesture,  like  style,  is  the  man.  Like  style, 
it  becomes  ineffective  and  objectionable  when  it  is 
mechanical  or  artificial.  Hence,  the  old  method  of  hav- 
ing a  teacher  mark  a  manuscript  indicating  just  where 
in  a  speech  gestures  were  to  be  used,  and  what  kind, 
now  seems  wholly  inadequate,  for  it  produces  the  very 
results  gesturing  should  prevent.  Speaking  might  far 
better  be  wholly  unaccompanied  by  gesturing  than  by 
having  the  artificial  and  unnatural  kind. 

The  fact  that  motion  pictures  convey  so  much  mean- 
ing without  words  is  the  best  possible  proof  of  the  power 
of  gesturing  when  it  is  well  done.  There  is  no  doubt 
but  that  appropriate  gestures  have  a  place  in  adding 
to  the  effectiveness  of  a  speech. 

Effective  gesturing  is  not  something  added  to  a 
speech.  It  is  the  whole  personality,  using  the  whole 
body,  in  a  harmonious  attempt  adequately  to  express 
its  thoughts  and  emotions.  The  voice  appeals  to  the 
ear,  and  through  the  ear  to  the  emotions;  but  the 
speaker's  hands,  feet,  face,  whole  body,  have  an  effect 
nearly  as  great  upon  the  eyes,  and  through  the  eyes 
upon  the  emotional  nature,  of  the  listener.  Thus, 
poise  is  not  only  a  kind  of  gesturing,  but  a  most  com- 
plex combination  of  gesturing  which  cannot  be  ignored. 
In  this  large  sense,  gesturing  is  the  simplest  and  often 
most   effective  kind  of  sign  language,   corroborating 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  205 

what  one  otherwise  says.  Get  away  from  the  idea 
that  gesturing  is  confined  to  the  use  of  the  hands  and 
arms.  It  is  the  result  of  a  natural  impulse  to  use  the 
whole  body  in  harmonious  action,  or  repose,  to  give 
the  fullest  possible  expression  to  one's  thoughts  and 
emotions. 

Look  at  the  matter  negatively,  for  a  moment,  if 
further  proof  of  the  value  and  the  power  of  gesturing 
is  needed.  When  a  speaker  makes  an  inappropriate, 
or  incongruous,  gesture,  such  as  pointing  down  when 
he  is  speaking  of  the  opposite  direction,  or  such  as 
standing  is  a  slovenly  or  lazy  way  when  the  nature  of 
his  words  connotes  a  position  of  alertness  and  forceful 
dignity,  the  effect  of  what  he  says  is  more  than  over- 
come by  his  attitude — his  gestures.  If  there  is  such 
power  in  bad  gestures  to  hinder  a  speech,  there  must  be 
a  corresponding  power  in  good  gestures  to  make  a  speech 
effective.  There  is  really  no  neutral  position.  Even 
though  one  may  never  move  his  hands,  he  gestures 
with  the  rest  of  his  body  whether  he  is  conscious  of  it 
or  not.  The  thing  to  do,  then,  is  to  learn  how  best  to 
use  this  power  beneficially. 

Gestures  are  usually  grouped  in  three  classes:  those 
of  location,  those  of  illustration,  and  those  of  emphasis. 

(a)  Gestures  of  location  are  to  indicate  the  position  of 
an  object  or  an  idea.  It  is  the  simplest  form  mani- 
fested in  children  when  they  point  to  what  they  want. 
It  should  be  used  rarely.  When  used  naturally  and 
not  obtrusively,  it  is  effective.  It  is  ridiculous  to  carry 
it  so  far  as  to  point  upward  whenever  the  Deity  is 


206  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

referred  to.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  natural  and 
appropriate  to  glance  upward  when  one's  thoughts  take 
that  direction. 

(b)  Gestures  of  illustration  are  mostly  used  to  show 
the  effect  exerted  by  some  one  or  something  upon 
some  one  else.  Gestures  of  this  sort  are  most  effective 
when  they  are  the  unconscious  expression  of  one's 
feelings  under  the  reaction  of  some  event,  emotion,  or 
other  influence. 

(c)  Gestures  of  emphasis,  as  the  word  signifies,  are  to 
intensify  the  meaning  of  words  or  thoughts.  Here  the 
action  should  accompany  the  utterance  of  the  word 
emphasized.  In  strong  assertion  and  forceful  argu- 
ment what  is  known  as  the  descending  gesture  should 
be  used;  in  expressing  lofty  sentiments  the  ascending 
gesture  is  appropriate;  while  in  expressing  emphasis 
upon  more  ordinary  sentiments  the  horizontal  gesture 
is  used. 

Common  sense,  good  taste,  and  real  interest  in  one's 
subject  are,  after  all,  the  chief  determining  factors  in 
the  matter  of  gesture.  When  one  has  put  away  his 
self-conscienceness  and  gained  self-control,  his  diffi- 
culties concerning  gesturing,  like  all  other  difficul- 
ties due  to  awkwardness,  will  vanish.  Know  what  you 
want  to  say,  feel  it  deeply,  then  say  it  naturally,  putting 
your  whole  being  into  the  act,  and  you  will  find  that 
the  matter  of  gesturing  has  been  largely  settled. 

The  last  essential  of  good  speaking  is  to  adapt  your- 
self to  your  audience.  A  good  speaker  does  this 
naturally.     He   feels   his   audience.     Every   audience 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  207 

has  a  sort  of  personality  of  its  own  which  reacts  upon 
the  speaker.  Some  are,  as  a  whole,  sympathetic; 
others  antagonistic.  Some  are  predisposed  in  favor 
of  the  speaker  and  his  subject;  some  are  skeptical; 
others  are  indifferent.  When  a  speaker  finds  his 
audience  in  sympathy  with  him  and  ready  to  listen, 
his  problem  is  easy.  He  is  among  friends,  as  it  were, 
and  all  he  has  to  do  is  to  give  his  message  in  a  straight- 
forward manner. 

When,  however,  the  audience  is  antagonistic  there 
is  a  real  problem.  The  purpose  of  the  speaker  is  to 
win  the  audience,  to  arouse  their  interest,  and,  if 
possible,  to  make  his  message  acceptable.  In  this  case, 
adapting  himself  to  his  audience  means  that  he  must 
not  show  that  he  is  conscious  of  their  antagonism. 
He  must  not  show  any  antagonism  toward  them,  nor 
even  feel  any.  He  must  calmly  accept  their  difference 
of  opinion  and  then  in  a  frank  and  tactful  manner, 
without  too  much  of  an  argumentative  spirit,  give  his 
message.  If  the  message  is  good  and  well  given,  he 
will  at  least  partially  succeed  in  convincing  his  hearers 
of  its  worth.  Frankness  and  tact  are  the  elements 
that  count  in  such  cases  as  this. 

The  indifferent  audience  is  the  hardest  to  manage. 
An  antagonistic  audience  is  at  least  negatively  inter- 
ested. They  are  awake  and  on  the  alert,  even  though 
it  be  only  to  find  fault.  But  that  is  far  better  than 
being  indifferent.  The  indifferent  audience  must  be 
aroused  and  thoroughly  awakened,  shocked  if  neces- 
sary, so  as  to  get  their  attention.     When,  however, 


208  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

attention  is  secured,  the  tactful  speaker  may  develop 
the  attention  into  interest  and  then  proceed  to  give 
instruction  with  fair  hopes  of  having  it  received.  The 
speaker  must  be  master  of  the  situation  and  never 
allow  the  interest  to  lag  for  a  moment.  There  are 
many  instances  recorded  where  those  who  have  "come 
to  scoff,  have  remained  to  pray,"  and  where  those  who 
thought  they  had  no  interest,  or  did  not  think  about 
the  matter  at  all,  have  been  aroused  into  good  listeners. 
A  capital  illustration,  not  of  a  group,  but  of  one  person, 
is  the  Bible  story  of  the  woman  of  Samaria  (St.  John 
4:4-36),  where  the  woman  was  at  first  wholly  indif- 
ferent and  then  antagonistic,  but,  under  the  tactful 
influence  of  the  speaker,  she  soon  not  only  listened,  but 
accepted  the  truth  of  what  she  heard. 

It  is  always  wise  for  a  speaker  to  learn  all  he  can  about 
his  audience  beforehand  to  enable  him  to  prepare  him- 
self in  advance.  If  he  can  master  the  leading  principles 
of  the  psychology  of  crowds,  so  much  the  better.  If, 
when  one  faces  his  audience,  he  discovers  a  person,  or 
a  group,  who  are  indifferent,  it  is  well  to  talk  directly 
to  them  until  their  attention  is  secured — until  they 
have  been  put  upon  a  par  with  the  rest  of  the  audience. 
The  speaker  must  be  "all  things  to  all  men,"  during 
the  first  few  moments  of  speaking  if  he  would  get  the 
right  start  to  enable  him  to  convince  his  hearers. 

Practice  in  Oral  Composition.  Opportunity  for  prac- 
tice in  applying  the  principles  of  oral  composition  is 
offered  constantly.  All  conversation  is  oral  composi- 
tion.    If  you  are  careful  to  master  yourself  and  to 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  209 

acquire  poise  in  all  your  speaking,  if  you  always  speak 
distinctly  and  agreeably,  you  will  not  encounter  many 
difficulties  when  you  have  to  speak  more  formally — 
when  you  have  to  "make  speeches."  If  you  think  of 
the  so-called  " speeches"  as  talks  that  require  a  little 
more  care  than  ordinary  conversation  they  will  seem 
less  difficult.  There  is  no  good  reason  why  a  pupil 
who  can  recite  well  in  mathematics  or  history  for  three 
minutes  should  conjure  up  difficulties  when  asked  to 
talk  for  three  minutes  on  a  subject  assigned  in  an  oral 
composition  class.  One  exercise  is  no  more  speaking 
in  public  than  the  ctler.  Try  the  method  of  Samuel 
Johnson,  who  felt  that  whenever  he  had  anything  to 
say  he  must  make  it  the  supreme  business  of  the 
moment. 

Make  every  recitation,  in  every  subject,  an  exercise 
in  oral  English.  Make  every  interview  with  every 
stranger  you  have  to  address  an  occasion  to  speak  the 
very  best  you  can.  Make  every  speech  you  have  to 
give  in  your  society  or  club  an  exercise  in  speaking  for 
results — an  experiment  in  trying  your  powers.  Make 
all  your  talk  count,  and  you  will  find  the  transition  to 
more  formal  speaking  an  easy  and  natural  one — a  new 
challenge  to  all  your  powers  of  expression — and  you 
will  gain  in  the  mastery  necessary  to  make  new  finished 
products  of  effective  oral  expression. 

Reading  Aloud.  Reading  aloud  is  a  neglected  kind 
of  expression.  Children  in  grammar  schools  frequently 
read  tolerably  well,  but  when  they  reach  the  high  school 
ihey  not  only  show  no  improvement,  but  they  often 


210  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

seem  to  deteriorate.  This  is  due  to  the  false  notion 
that  reading  is  a  grammar-school  affair  that,  when 
they  reach  the  higher  school,  it  is  to  be  looked  upon  as 
a  thing  accomplished  and  of  the  past  only.  This 
indicates  a  most  deplorable  state  of  affairs. 

The  high  school  is  not  the  place  to  rest  satisfied 
with  one's  previous  attainments  in  reading;  it  is  the 
place  to  study  to  advance  more  and  more  toward 
perfection  in  reading. 

Reading  aloud  is  not  the  simple  matter  some  think — 
not  merely  pronouncing  words  in  sequence.  Reading 
aloud  is  one  of  the  most  difficult,  complicated,  and 
important  functions  an  educated  person  can  exercise. 
What  is  it?  This:  reading  aloud  is  entering  into 
the  atmosphere  of  a  writer,  comprehending  his  mean- 
ing fully,  feeling  his  emotion  sympathetically,  and 
then  interpreting  it  all  so  adequately  as  to  make  a 
listener  understand,  feel,  and  appreciate  the  author's 
message. 

The  only  real  reading  aloud  is  interpretative  reading. 
Any  other  so-called  reading  is  a  travesty.  The  com- 
monplace, dead-level  flatness  of  much  that  goes  for 
reading,  but  which  does  not  fully  express  the  author, 
is  unjust  to  him,  unworthy  of  the  reader,  and  unfair 
to  the  listener. 

It  requires  study  to  get  the  full  meaning  of  the 
printed  page,  it  requires  imagination  to  read  between  the 
lines  and  get  the  full  connotation  and  force  of  a  writer's 
emotional  appeal;  but  many  readers  go  as  far  as  this 
and  yet  fail  to  interpret.     They  fail  because  they  are 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  211 

afraid  to  "let  themselves  go,"  to  give  full  expression 
to  their  emotions.  Consequently  they  hesitate  to  read 
a  dramatic  passage  dramatically.  It  is  another  in- 
stance of  self-consciousness  hindering  self-expression. 
But  all  this  may  be  remedied  if  you  heed  the  instruc- 
tion given  in  this  chapter.  Study  to  apply  the  prin- 
ciples of  effective  oral  expression  to  your  reading  aloud 
and  you  will  find  it  of  very  material  help  in  all  oral 
expression.  Daily  practice  in  reading  aloud  is  of 
inestimable  value.  Read  especially  poetry  and  the 
drama.     Make  all  your  reading  count.1 

Declamation.  Declamation  is  a  valuable  form  of  oral 
exercise.  It  is  valuable  because  it  offers  an  excellent 
opportunity  to  give  an  oral  interpretation  to  another's 
meaning.  Declamation  should  be  cultivated  as  a  part 
of  one's  oral  training,  but  the  " speaking  of  pieces" 
should  not  stand  in  the  way  of  the  far  more  valuable 
exercise  of  preparing  one's  own  speeches.  Outside  of 
school  and  the  entertainment  platform,  the  demand  is 
for  original  speeches  and  oral  training  should  em- 
phasize that  more  practical  kind  of  work. 

The  word  recitation  seems  to  be  gaining  in  popularity 
over  declamation,  but  the  most  favored  word  to-day 
is  reading,  which  has  come  to  connote  all  the  better 
qualities  of  the  other  two  and  which,  for  the  most  part, 
avoids  their  artificiality.  Dr.  Henry  van  Dyke,  one 
of  the  most  successful  teachers  of  literature  as  well  as 
producer    of   literature,    once   referred   to   himself   as 

1  For  a  full  and  adequate  treatment  of  this  subject,  consult  Professor 
S.  H.  Clark's  Interpretation  of  the  Printed  Page. 


212  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

"a  teacher  of  reading."  It  is  also  true  as  a  great 
scientist  once  said,  "It  is  a  great  thing  to  be  able  to 
read  a  page  of  English." 

We  now  turn  to  some  of  the  practical  forms  of 
original  addresses. 

Kinds  of  Speeches 

Announcements.  One  of  the  commonest  kinds  of 
short  speeches  is  the  announcement  of  new  forms  of 
school  activities,  coming  events,  such  as  a  school  play, 
"school  paper  day,"  conducted  by  the  English  depart- 
ment, the  participation  of  the  school  in  some  public 
event,  and  the  like.  Such  speeches  offer  excellent  prac- 
tice because  they  necessitate  great  condensation  to 
keep  within  the  time  limit  and  because  they  offer  op- 
portunities for  earnest  and  persuasive  presentation. 
Such  speeches  should  be  carefully  planned  and  prac- 
ticed orally  before  presentation.  In  planning,  keep  in 
mind  all  the  fundamental  rhetorical  principles;  and  in 
delivery  be  guided  by  the  essentials  of  good  speaking, 
already  explained. 

Introductions.  Have  a  definite  plan.  Be  brief.  Keep 
yourself  in  the  background.  Keep  in  mind  the  fact 
that  you  are  to  help  make  the  one  who  is  about  to 
speak  to  get  in  touch  with  his  audience.  Show  the  fit- 
ness of  the  speaker  to  handle  the  subject,  enlarge  upon 
the  subject  just  enough  to  whet  the  appetite  of  the 
audience,  give  some  idea  of  the  pleasure  in  store  for 
the  audience,  but  do  not  overdo  it\  Always  seek  to  avoid 
fulsome  praise  and  vain  flattery.     No  speaker  wants 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  213 

such  an  introduction.  Even  though  you  might  say 
much  in  honest  praise,  leave  it  to  the  audience  to  dis- 
cover how  great  a  treat  they  are  getting.  Be  careful 
to  state  clearly  the  speaker's  name  and  subject.  The 
slightest  error  in  such  matters  is  often  most  embarrass- 
ing. One  to  three  minutes  is  all  that  should  ordinarily 
be  taken  to  introduce  the  speaker.  The  audience  is 
always  impatient  at  such  times.    Do  not  bore  them. 

After-dinner  Speeches.  Here  there  is  great  variety. 
Subjects  differ  as  much  as  the  kinds  of  groups  which 
consent  to  be  talked  to  after  having  been  feasted.  For 
the  most  part,  such  groups  want  to  be  entertained,  and 
expect  speeches  of  a  highly  complimentary  nature  en- 
livened by  humor.  The  audience  is  in  good  humor 
and  will  tolerate  almost  any  speech,  consequently  many 
have  grown  careless  and  seem  content  to  give  wholly 
impromptu  speeches  that  are  not  worth  listening  to 
and  which  bore  even  a  good-natured  audience.  A  re- 
action, however,  has  come,  and  banqueters  are  more 
and  more  demanding  "a  feast  of  reason,"  something 
worth  while,  something  carefully  prepared,  brief  and 
to  the  point. 

If  the  banqueting  group  consists  of  a  number  of 
friends  gathered  for  mutual  admiration  and  a  pleasant 
evening,  and  if  the  speech  is  by  one  of  their  own  num- 
ber, any  subject  of  interest  to  the  group,  or  to  several 
in  it,  is  suitable.  It  should  have  sufficient  interest  to 
warrant  it  and  should  be  seasoned  liberally  with  good 
stories.  Good-natured  personalities  are  often  accept- 
able.   If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  speaker  is  a  guest  of 


214  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

honor  who  has  been  asked  to  speak  upon  an  assigned 
topic,  he  should  prepare  most  carefully  and  give  a 
straightforward  address  worthy  of  a  lecture  hall.  He 
may  begin  with  a  few  pleasantries,  but  he  will  use  them 
only  as  an  approach  toward  his  weightier  subject. 

It  is  getting  to  be  more  and  more  the  custom  to  dis- 
cuss the  most  important  matters  around  a  banquet 
table  and  have  the  best  available  speakers.  During 
the  Liberty  Loan  campaigns  it  was  the  custom  in  many 
cities  for  the  committees  to  do  much  of  their  planning 
and  much  of  their  arousing  of  enthusiasm  after  noonday 
luncheons.  It  proved  most  effective.  Such  practices 
are  opening  the  way  for  turning  to  the  best  of  uses  a 
practice  that  was  formerly  less  worthy. 

The  toastmaster  has  a  difficult  task.  He  must  be  a 
master  of  the  situation.  He  must  know  all  the  speakers 
and  something  about  their  subjects.  He  must  be  of 
ready  wit  and  possess  a  large  sense  of  humor.  He  must 
present  each  speaker  tactfully  so  as  to  connect  the  vari- 
ous speeches  as  he  would  assemble  the  various  parts  of 
one  speech.  He  must  be  able  to  add  the  spice  of  variety 
and  to  cover  any  slight  unpleasantness  that  may  arise 
and  keep  the  whole  program  interesting  and  attractive. 
And  finally  he  should  bring  the  speechmaking  to  a 
close  before  his  companions  are  tired  out. 

The  Oration.  Strictly,  an  oration  is  the  chief  speech 
on  some  important  occasion,  a  carefully  prepared 
speech  of  considerable  length.  The  oration  generally 
combines  all  the  forms  of  discourse,  including  persua- 
sion.    The  exordium  is  usually  explanatory,  and  the 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  215 

peroration  an  appeal  for  action  and  an  exhortation 
based  upon  the  argument  presented  in  the  body  of  the 
oration.  Narration  and  description  are  used  to  enrich 
and  embellish  the  speech.  The  best  oration  of  the 
deliberative  kind  is  Cicero's  For  the  Manilian  Law, 
while  Burke's  Conciliation  Speech  holds  first  rank 
among  modern  achievements. 

The  oration  differs  from  the  essay,  or  long  thesis,  in 
that  it  is  carefully  planned  for  oral  presentation,  by 
using  periodic  sentences,  parallel  constructions,  cli- 
maxes, short  sentences,  euphonious  words,  and  striking 
figures  of  speech  such  as  are  capable  of  strong  and 
effective  oral  presentation. 

The  Lecture.  The  formal  lecture  is  practically 
identical  with  the  oration.  The  informal  lecture  may 
be  anything  from  a  classroom  address  to  one  that 
barely  falls  short  of  being  an  oration. 

Other  Forms  of  Speeches.  Of  the  many  other  forms  of 

speeches  a  mere  enumeration  must  suffice: 

Class  day  address  Sales  speech  (giving  atten- 
Class  president's  address  tion  to  commodity  and  to 

Valedictory  customer) 

Presentation  speech  Stump  speech  (for  votes) 

Address  of  acceptance  Nominating  speech 

Address  of  welcome  Impromptu  speech 

Farewell  speech  Repeating  a  story  from 
Inauguration  speech  memory 

Rally  speech  Book  reports 

In  all  these  exercises  plan  with  care  what  you  want 
to  say,  how  you  can  best  say  it  effectively,  that  is 
clearly  and  agreeably,  and  adapt  yourself  to  your 
audience,  then  deliver  your  speech. 


216  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

For  practice  in  oral  composition  the  following  exer- 
cises will  be  found  suggestive  in  giving  variety  of  in- 
struction and  in  arousing  sufficient  interest  to  aid  both 
in  overcoming  self-consciousness  and  in  gaining  self- 
control. 

(a)  Conversation,  Remember  that  real  conversation 
does  not  consist  of  the  constant  use  of  monosyllables 
and  that  each  one  who  speaks  is  supposed  to  add  some- 
thing of  interest  to  all  and  something  which  he,  per- 
haps, can  add  better  than  anyone  else.  Remember, 
also,  that  courtesy  does  not  allow  anyone  to  monopolize 
the  conversation;  that  good  listeners  are  essential  to 
good  conversation.  Imagine  the  class  to  be  a  group  of 
friends  seated  around  a  fireplace  with  nothing  to  do 
but  to  talk.  Let  some  one  begin  by  recounting  his 
camping  experiences  and  then  let  all  join  in  conversation 
upon  that  subject.  (Select  another  subject  if  desired.) 
(Conversational  exercises  will  be  found  very  beneficial 
for  beginners  in  oral  work  because  it  is  the  form  in 
which  one  may  most  easily  forget  himself  and  give  his 
attention  to  the  work  of  the  class.  This  may  be  made 
more  formal  by  conducting  a  symposium.) 

(b)  A  Club  Meeting.  Organize  the  class  into  some 
kind  of  club  —  literary,  scientific,  political — and  then 
conduct  a  meeting.  During  the  business  session  at- 
tention should  be  paid  to  parliamentary  procedure, 
following  some  recognized  authority,  so  that  every 
one  may  learn  how  to  participate  in  such  meetings 
and  bow  to  preside.  Then  have  a  regular  program 
with  speeches,  declamations,  readings,  discussion,  etc. 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  217 

Close  in  regular  form  with  reading  and  adopting  of 
minutes. 

(c)  A  Legislative  Body.  Organize  the  class  into  a  city 
Common  Council,  State  Legislature,  Congress,  or  the 
English  Parliament,  and  proceed  to  transact  business 
and  to  pass  laws.  In  each  case  the  procedure  should 
be  as  near  as  possible  to  that  of  the  kind  of  body  the 
class  is  imitating.  Such  exercises  may  be  made  to 
assist  in  the  mastery  of  such  other  studies  as  history 
and  civics.  In  proposing  bills  and  in  discussing  them, 
an  excellent  opportunity  is  offered  for  oratory  and 
debate  if  the  class  takes  the  precaution  of  dividing  itself 
among  the  various  political  parties  when  it  organizes 
into  a  legislative  body. 

(d)  Board  of  Directors  of  a  Corporation.  Where  it  is 
possible  to  obtain  information  as  to  methods  of  proce- 
dure oral  composition  work  may  be  made  to  serve  the 
purpose  of  giving  instruction  in  business  methods 
while  affording  training  in  public  speaking.  In  connec- 
tion with  such  a  meeting  of  a  board  of  directors,  it  is 
possible  to  combine  practice  in  salesman's  speeches. 
Have  a  representative  of  an  advertising  agency,  an 
insurance  company,  or  a  large  manufacturing  concern, 
appear  before  the  board  of  directors  and  present  his 
case. 

(e)  A  School  Faculty  Meeting.  Such  a  meeting  might 
serve  the  purpose  of  discussing  vital  school  affairs 
from  the  viewpoint  of  the  pupils  and  be  made  most 
interesting.  Discuss  courses  of  study,  cases  of  dis- 
cipline,   interscholastic    contests,    literary    and    ath- 


218  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

letic,    and  plans  for    a   school  entertainment  or   for 
commencement. 

(f)  An  Editorial  Staff  of  a  School  Paper.  Conduct 
an  imaginary  meeting  at  the  beginning  of  the  school 
year  with  election  of  editors  for  the  various  positions 
on  the  stafi>such  as  Editor-in-chief,  Business  Manager, 
Athletic  Editor,  Funny  Man,  etc.  Elect  new  members 
to  the  staff  after  discussion  of  their  qualifications. 
Discuss  the  policy  of  the  paper :  the  number  and  kinds 
of  departments,  exchanges,  prize-story  contests,  ways 
and  means  of  selling  the  papers,  number  of  issues,  etc. 

(g)  A  Mass  Meeting.  Here  the  class  represents  the 
whole  school  assembled  to  discuss  a  school  enterprise, 
such  as  an  appeal  to  the  Common  Council  for  an  addi- 
tion to  the  building,  a  new  gymnasium,  etc.,  or  the 
advisability  of  forming  new  literary  societies,  the  con- 
trol of  fraternities,  etc.  Here  again  is  an  opportunity 
for  drill  in  parliamentary  procedure. 

(h)  After-dinner  Speeches  at  a  Banquet.  Let  the  ban- 
quet be  that  of  a  club,  of  the  faculty,  of  the  class,  or  of 
a  patriotic  society,  such  as  the  Sons  of  the  American 
Revolution.  Be  careful  to  select  the  right  one  to  pre- 
side as  toastmaster.  Let  one  be  the  guest  of  honor 
with  the  principal  speech.  Have  other  prepared 
speeches  and  a  few  impromptu  speeches.  Have  a  pre- 
sentation speech,  presenting  a  gold  watch  or  a  purse 
of  gold  to  one  of  the  members  for  some  service  done 
the  club,  etc.,  and  an  appropriate  speech  of  acceptance. 
Do  not  bar  out  humorous  speeches,  but  endeavor  to 
have  the  humor  genuine. 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  219 

(i)  A  Court.  Some  one  is  to  be  tried  for  some  ridicu- 
lous and  imaginary  crime.  Elect  or  appoint  a  judge,  a 
court  clerk,  a  prosecuting  attorney,  and  a  counsel  for 
the  defense.  Let  them  be  a  committee  of  arrangements, 
acting  with  the  criminal,  to  arrange  for  witnesses,  etc. 
Let  the  rest  of  the  class  act  as  jury,  which  should  elect 
its  own  foreman.  Such  a  class  exercise  should  be  care- 
fully worked  up.  It  furnishes  great  variety  of  oppor- 
tunity for  practice  in  public  speaking. 

(j)  A  Prize-speaking  Contest  or  a  Debate.  The  class 
conducts  the  contest.  A  limited  number  speak  or  de- 
bate; the  rest  act  as  judges,  or  part  as  judges,  and  part 
as  visitors. 

(k)  The  Presentation  of  a  Simple  Play.  This  will  re- 
quire much  time  for  rehearsals  and  is  rather  ambitious. 
For  a  small  class,  however,  it  is  recommended  for  the 
farewell  meeting  of  the  oral  composition  class. 

(If  the  suggestions  given  above  are  followed  there 
will  be  little  time  and  little  need  left  for  such  regulation 
exercises  as  reading  aloud,  at  sight,  or  after  prepara- 
tion; declamations  and  impromptu  speeches;  and  de- 
bates. All  these  are  more  formal  and  less  capable  of 
arousing  interest  than  the  method  we  have  outlined. 
Besides,  all  these  kinds  of  practice  are  included,  with 
the  added  advantage  of  being  made  parts  of  programs, 
etc.) 

The  following  suggestions,  formally  approved  by 
the  New  York  State  Regents,  comprise  a  plan  for 
graded  work  in  oral  English  for  the  four  years  of  the 
high  school  course.     This  plan  may  be  used  by  itself 


220  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

in  the  place  of  the  suggestions  already  given  or  as  an 
alternative  plan. 

First  Year.  The  aim  in  teaching  oral  English  in  the 
first  year  of  the  high  school,  is  to  get  pupils  to  guard 
their  speech  against  careless  enunciation,  slang,  local 
and  provincial  expressions,  and  other  habits  charac- 
teristic of  the  illiterate  and  of  those  who  know  better 
but  whose  practice  is  not  in  keeping. 

Emphasize  the  fact  that  all  speaking  should  be  tested 
by  good  usage  in  oral  expression. 

Try  to  cultivate  self-mastery,  poise,  proper  breath- 
ing, and  vocalization,  with  special  attention  to  speaking 
clearly  and  agreeably.  Give  attention  to  modulation, 
to  tone,  pitch,  force,  and  the  rate  of  speaking.  Begin 
work  in  interpretative  reading.  Explain  the  funda- 
mental principles  of  gesturing. 

For  specific  class  work  give  instruction  and  personal 
guidance  in  simple  conversation  upon  assigned  subjects; 
call  for  reports  of  things  observed  by  the  pupils,  for 
book  reports,  newspaper  reports  of  notable  events,  im- 
pressions of  prominent  people;  have  a  series  of  declama- 
tions once  round  the  class;  have  simple  oral  narratives 
of  personal  experiences;  descriptions  of  simple  scenes, 
buildings,  games,  and  people;  explanations  of  simple 
processes,  and  preliminary  work  in  informal  argumen- 
tation upon  subjects  well  within  the  ability  of  the 
pupils. 

Make  all  oral  work  attractive,  so  that  all  will  enjoy 
it,  and  at  the  same  time  see  its  practical  bearing. 

Let  first-year  oral  work  prepare  for  the  higher  grades. 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  22i 

Second  Year.  Narration;  original  stories.  Simple 
plots,  various  themes.  Personal  incidents,  humorous 
and  otherwise.  Selected  anecdotes  and  jokes.  Descrip- 
tion as  involved  in  narration.    Informal  description. 

Informal  argumentation  and  persuasion.  Proposi- 
tions relating  to  matters  pertaining  to  school  life;  e.g., 
urging  boys  to  try  for  athletic  teams,  for  school  and 
interschool  intellectual  contests,  to  develop  school 
spirit,  improve  school  order,  etc. 

Brief  speeches  preliminary  to  written  themes  on 
current  events  within  and  outside  of  school.  (The  use 
of  newspapers;  how  to  find  the  various  things  in  it, 
etc.)  Oral  practice  in  condensation  of  long  articles, 
making  abstracts,  digests,  excerpts,  etc. 

Reading  aloud,  after  preparation  and  at  sight. 

Descriptions  of  increasing  difficulty,  as  year  advances. 

Throughout  the  year  have  occasional  conversation 
days,  being  careful  to  explain  what  constitutes  good 
conversation. 

Third  Year.  Informal  discussion  of  leading  articles 
in  such  papers  or  magazines  as  The  Independent,  The 
Outlook,  The  Review  of  Reviews,  The  Literary  Digest,  etc. 
Divide  class  into  groups,  with 'group  leaders,  to  divide 
work  among  members  of  group. 

Practice  in  conducting  a  meeting  in  accordance  with 
Parliamentary  Law.  How  to  make  a  motion,  speak  on 
a  motion  made,  preside,  etc.  Begin  with  simple  meet- 
ings, such  as  class  meetings,  literary  societies,  etc. 

Always  emphasize  Articulation  and  Enunciation. 

A  few  exercises  in  dramatization  of  scenes  from  such 


222  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

works  as  Silas  Marner,  David  Copperfield,  A  Tale  of 
Two  Cities,  etc.  Have  dramatization  followed  by 
presentation  in  class. 

More  difficult  descriptions,  with  attention  to  use  of 
major  and  minor  details,  first  impressions,  etc.  Make 
description  effective  in  narrative. 

More  advanced  informal  discussion,  drawing  sub- 
jects from  other  studies  and  from  current  topics. 

Explanation  of  processes — how  to  make  things  and 
do  things. 

Begin  more  formal  discussion,  dividing  the  class  into 
" sides"  for  discussion  of  debatable  questions. 

Offering  resolutions  in  deliberative  bodies,  speaking 
upon  the  same.  Increasingly  difficult  problems,  within 
the  knowledge  of  the  pupils,  to  be  debated  and  passed 
upon. 

Review  of  story-telling  with  special  attention  given 
to  arousing  interest  by  making  the  most  of  the 
"  point, "  keeping  ever  in  mind  the  application  of  the 
fundamental  rhetorical  qualities — Unity,  Coherence, 
and  Proportion. 

Fourth  Year.  Reading  selected  poems  aloud  (after 
study,  outside  the  class),  giving  attention  the  selection 
by  putting  a  premium  upon  good,  fresh,  and  vital 
poems  and  by  discrediting  trite  and  hackneyed  ones. 

Occasional  declamations  or  orations  drawn  from 
topics  connected  with  the  study  of  literature,  or  from 
matters  of  current  interest,  but  of  greater  difficulty 
than  those  discussed  last  year. 

Impromptu  three  to  five  minute  speeches  on  topics 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  223 

drawn  from  larger  subjects  previously  assigned  for 
reading. 

Oral  book  reviews.  A  symposium  on  "Good 
Reading." 

Continued  discussion  of  magazine  articles,  if  such 
are  used. 

Formal  argumentation.  Brief -making.  Speaking 
from  briefs.  Class  debates  (class  divided  into  two 
parts)  on  propositions  drawn  from  Burke's  Conciliation 
Speech  and  upon  school  problems. 

More  difficult  oral  assignments  in  Narration,  De- 
scription, and  Exposition  suited  to  the  advancing 
powers  of  the  pupils. 

Informal  discussions  of  large  subjects  upon  some 
phase  of  which  written  essays  are  to  be  assigned  later, 
— e.g.,  "Thrift,"  Humane  Treatment  of  Animals,  the 
work  of  the  Charity  Organization,  various  public 
movements,  Higher  Education,  The  Large  vs.  the 
Small  College,  Co-Education,  Public  vs.  Private  Schools, 
The  Relative  Value  of  Cultural  and  Industrial  Subjects. 

Exercises  to  show  that  poetry  must  be  read  aloud. 

Exercises  in  interpretative  reading. 

Vocal  culture:  enunciation,  inflection,  pronuncia- 
tion, expression  of  feeling. 

Dramatic  reading.  Point  of  view  of  characters 
interpreted,  etc. 

More  difficult  exercises  in  parliamentary  practice. 
Imaginary  meetings  of  City  Council,  the  State  Legisla- 
ture, trial  by  jury,  mass  meetings.  Meetings  to  con- 
sider and  adopt  a  constitution. 


224  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

Addresses  of  welcome  when  a  distinguished  guest 
comes  to  town. 

After-dinner  speeches;  eulogies  on  men  of  note;  oral 
reports  of  addresses  in  school  assembly,  giving  points 
and  impressions. 

To  the  Teacher 

Be  sympathetic,  but  remember  that  sympathy  is  not 
to  militate  against  firmness.  Give  special  attention 
to  timid  pupils:  they  need  it  and  probably  deserve  it. 
Do  not  allow  the  good  speakers  to  monopolize  all  the 
time  of  the  class.  Help  pupils  to  overcome  their  self- 
consciousness  by  giving  them  a  little  psychology. 

Begin  your  work  in  each  class  with  conversation,  as 
in  a  familiar  circle,  then  go  on  to  more  formal  and 
more  difficult  forms  of  oral  composition.  Keep  ever 
before  the  class  the  practical  value  of  learning  to 
express  one's  ideas  orally. 


CHAPTER  VII 
NARRATION 

Everybody  loves  a  good  story.  From  the  time  when 
the  child  asks  his  mother  for  a  story  beginning  "once 
upon  a  time,"  and  when  a  fairy  tale  satisfies,  down  to 
reminiscent  old  age,  the  story  furnishes  one  of  the  best 
forms  of  entertainment.  Stories  please  because  they 
are  about  people  who  are  doing  things  in  interesting 
situations.  The  human  interest  and  the  action  give 
them  a  compelling  force. 

Narration  is  that  form  of  discourse  which  relates, 
concretely,  particular  events,  in  a  definite  order,  and 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  arouse  and  to  hold  the  interest 
of  the  listener  or  reader.  Even  if  the  ultimate  aim  of 
a  story  is  to  give  information,  the  author's  immediate 
purpose  is  so  to  appeal  to  the  feelings  and  to  the  imagi- 
nation as  to  please.  Hence,  narration  deals  with  events 
and  with  the  persons  concerned  with  them,  rather  than 
with  ideas.  It  seeks  to  give  impressions  of  reality 
through  a  vital  presentation  of  facts  about  interesting 
people.  A  story  is  successfully  told  when  it  stimulates 
the  imagination  to  a  real  interest  in  the  events  related; 
this  interest  is  assured  only  when  the  material  is  handled 
concretely. 

Kinds  of  Narration.    There  are  three  kinds  of  narra- 

225 


226  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

tion.  First,  that  which  relates  bare  events,  just  as  they 
occurred,  but  without  any  attempt  to  make  them  in- 
teresting, the  simple  chronicle,  for  record  only.  Under 
this  class  we  have  the  ship's  log,  minutes  of  meetings, 
and  diaries.  Second,  that  which  gives  information  and 
is  best  illustrated  by  the  so-called  newspaper  story, 
where  the  point,  or  climax,  is  put  in  the  headlines  to 
attract  attention.  This  method  suffices  in  giving  news, 
for  many  readers  are  content  with  the  bare  headings 
without  details.  They  get  the  point  in  the  easiest  pos- 
sible way.  The  third  kind  of  narration  is  not  content 
with  a  mere  record;  it  seeks  to  state  the  facts  interest- 
ingly, to  give  them  a  semblance  of  life,  and  to  relate 
them  in  language  of  charm.  This  is  literary  narration, 
and  in  this  form  we  are  especially  interested. 

Point  of  View  in  Narration.  The  first  thing  to  settle 
when  planning  to  tell  a  story  is  the  point  of  view  of  the 
narrator.  In  narration,  the  point  of  view  is  the  mental 
attitude  of  the  narrator,  and  is  determined  by  his  rela- 
tion to  the  story.  The  narrator  may  be  the  chief  char- 
acter in  the  story  as  in  Lorna  Doone,  Treasure  Island, 
or  David  Balfour;  he  may  be  a  minor  character,  as  in 
Conan  Doyle's  Sherlock  Holmes  stories;  he  may  be  a 
power  behind  all  the  characters,  seeing  all  they  do  and 
even  knowing  their  inmost  thoughts  and  motives,  as 
in  The  Old  Curiosity  Shop.  This  omniscient  point  of 
of  view,  as  it  has  been  called,  is  the  natural  one  for  the 
creator  of  a  story,  but  it  is  thought  objectionable  by 
some;  a  fourth  point  of  view  may  be  called  that 
of  the  compiler  or  editor.    Chaucer  uses  this  method  in 


NARRATION  227 

The  Canterbury  Tales.  After  introducing  his  characters 
he  has  each  tell  a  story  which  he  records.  Sometimes 
the  compiler  simply  collects  and  arranges  a  series  of 
letters  without  comment,  as  in  Smollett's  Humphrey 
Clinker  or  Jean  Webster's  Daddy  Long  Legs.  Again, 
the  author  may  claim  to  have  found  an  old  manuscript, 
which  he  edits  and  gives  to  the  public,  as  Washington 
Irving  did  with  Knickerbocker's  History  of  New  York. 
For  practical  purposes  these  various  methods  of  telling 
a  story  may  be  reduced  to  two — the  internal  or  auto- 
biographical, and  the  external  or  author's  point  of  view. 

The  important  thing  for  beginners  is  to  select  some 
one  definite  point  of  view  and  then  adhere  to  it  through- 
out his  story.  The  simplest  is  the  autobiographical, 
but  it  should  not  be  used  exclusively. 

Material  of  Narration.  Narration  employs  nearly 
every  kind  of  material,  but  it  uses  it  sparingly,  not  as 
much,  but  as  little  as  possible.  What  has  been  pre- 
viously said  about  the  selection  of  material  in  general 
must  here  be  reiterated  in  particular.  Nowhere  else  is 
it  so  necessary  to  plan  and  select  with  great  care  as  in 
telling  a  story.  An  observing  pupil,  who  has  been  asked 
to  write  about  an  experience  which  he  really  knows, 
will  invariably  make  the  mistake  of  giving  in  his  narra- 
tive a  complete  record,  thereby  defeating  his  purpose. 
To  guard  against  this  we  must  again  emphasize  the 
need  of  careful  selection  of  striking  details. 

Literary  narration  aims  at  interest.  More  than  that, 
it  aims  at  interest  culminating  in  what  is  called  the 
" point"    of    the    story.     The    better    that    " point," 


228  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

which  is  revealed  in  the  climax,  is  brought  out,  the 
better  the  story.  Having  the  " point"  constantly  in 
view,  the  writer  must  decide  which  incidents  are 
significant  and  essential  to  lead  up  to  the  " point," 
and  then  jot  them  down  in  a  plan  of  the  story.  These 
essential  incidents  must  then  be  arranged  in  the  best 
way  to  show  that  they  inevitably  lead  to  the  climax. 
This  may  be  the  chronological  order  in  simple  narra- 
tion or  it  may  be  the  logical  order  in  more  complicated 
stories.  Whichever  order  promises  to  secure  the  best 
results,  should  be  selected.  Incidents  that  are  dramatic, 
that  have  in  them  forces  that  demand  further  considera- 
tion, will  always  be  found  the  most  valuable.  Reject 
all  material  that  does  not  decidedly  lead  toward  the 
climax. 

The  old  ballads  best  illustrate  the  kind  of  stories 
that  endure  and  it  needs  but  little  study  to  reveal 
what  has  made  them  last  for  centuries.  For  instance, 
take  Bonnie  George  Campbell: 

BONNIE  GEORGE  CAMPBELL 

"Hie  upon  Hielands, 

And  low  upon  Tay, 
Bonnie  George  Campbell 

Rade  out  on  a  day. 
Saddled  and  bridled 

And  gallant  rade  he; 
Hame  came  his  gude  horse, 

But  never  came  he! 

"Out  came  his  auld  mither 
Greeting  fu'  sair, 
And  out  came  his  bonnie  bride 
Rivin'  her  hair. 


NARRATION  229 

Saddled  and  bridled 

And  booted  rade  he; 
Toom  hame  cam  the  saddle 

But  never  came  he! 

"'My  meadow  lies  green, 

And  my  corn  is  unshorn; 
My  barn  is  too  big, 

And  my  babie's  unborn.' 
Saddled  and  bridled 

And  booted  rade  he; 
Toom  hame  cam  the  saddle, 

But  never  cam  he." 

This  is  not  a  story.  It  is  not  a  story  in  the  sense  of 
being  a  completely  developed  story.  In  another  sense, 
it  is  a  perfect  story,  for  the  pathetic  point  is  made  and 
just  enough  incidents  are  graphically  given  to  show 
why  such  a  climax,  with  such  sad  results,  had  to  come. 
More  details  might  have  been  used  and  those  that 
were  used  might  have  been  developed  at  almost  any 
length,  resulting  in  a  long  story.  But  it  would  not,  of 
necessity,  have  been  better.  As  it  is,  it  is  a  perfect 
illustration  of  selection,  using  enough  to  make  an  in- 
tense appeal  to  the  feelings  and  suggest  a  world  of 
material  for  the  imagination  to  work  upon. 

Ballads,  which  are  not  the  work  of  single  authors, 
but  the  unconscious  growth  from  the  hearts  of  the 
common  people,  so  well  illustrate  what  selection  should 
be,  that  we  refer  to  another  ballad,  still  better  known: 
Sir  Patrick  Spens. 

SIR  PATRICK  SPENS 

"The  king  sits  in  Dumferline  toune, 
Drinking  the  blude-red  wine; 
'0  whar  will  I  get  guid  sailor,  4 

To  sail  this  schip  of  mine?' 


230  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

"Up  and  spak  an  eldern  knicht, 
Sat  at  the  king's  richt  kne: 
'Sir  Patrick  Spens  is  the  best  sailor, 
That  sails  upon  the  se.' 

"The  king  has  written  a  braid  letter, 
And  signed  it  wi'  his  hand, 
And  sent  it  to  Sir  Patrick  Spens 
Was  walking  on  the  sand. 

"The  first  line  that  Sir  Patrick  red, 
A  loud  lauch  lauched  he; 
The  next  line  that  Sir  Patrick  red 
The  teir  blinded  his  ee. 

"'0  wha  is  this  has  don  this  deid, 
This  ill  deid  don  to  me, 
To  send  me  out  this  time  o'  the  yeir, 
To  sail  upon  the  se! 

"'Mak  hast,  mak  haste,  my  mirry  men  all, 
Our  guid  schip  sails  the  morne': 
'0  say  na  sae,  my  master  deir, 
For  I  feir  a  deadlie  storme. 

"'Late,  late  yestreen  I  saw  the  new  moone, 
Wi'  the  auld  moone  in  hir  arme, 
And  I  feir,  I  feir,  my  deir  master, 
That  we  will  cum  to  harme.' 

"0  our  Scots  nobles  wer  richt  laith 
To  wut  their  cork-heild  schoone; 
Bot  lang  owre  a'  the  play  wer  playd, 
Thair  hats  they  swam  aboone. 

"O  lang,  lang,  may  their  ladies  sit, 
Wi'  their  fans  into  their  hand, 
Or  eir  they  se  Sir  Patrick  Spens 
Cum  sailing  to  the  land. 

"0  lang,  lang  may  their  ladies  stand, 
Wi'  their  gold  kerns  in  their  hair, 
Waiting  for  their  ain  deir  lords, 
»  For  they'll  se  thame  na  mair 


NARRATION  231 

!Haf  owre,  haf  owre  to  Aberdour, 

It's  fifty  fadom  deip, 
And  thair  lies  guid  Sir  Patrick  Spens, 

Wi'  the  Scots  lords  at  his  feit." 


This  is  one  of  the  most  famous  of  all  the  old  ballads. 
Why?  Because  it  is  so  concrete,  so  definite,  so  intense, 
that  it  makes  us  throb  with  interest.  The  most 
striking  and  essential  incidents  are  selected  and  then 
so  handled  as  to  lead  directly  to  the  destined  climax. 
It  is  easy  to  see  what  few  details  are  used;  it  is  almost 
as  easy  to  imagine  what  other  details  might  have  been 
employed.  If,  however,  we  examine  the  few  used,  we 
at  once  see  that  not  one  of  them  could  have  been 
spared.  If  we  estimate  those  that  might  have  been 
used,  we  readily  see  that  they  would  not  add  to  the 
interest  sufficiently  to  warrant  their  use  and,  moreover, 
they  readily  suggest  themselves  to  the  imaginative 
reader. 

One  single,  strong  impression  is  far  better  than  a 
long-drawn-out  story  which  has  little  or  no  effect. 

The  version  of  Sir  Patrick  Spens  which  we  have 
quoted  contains  eleven  stanzas.  It  is  the  generally 
used  version;  accepted  as  the  best.  There  is  another 
version  which  contains  fifteen  stanzas  more,  furnishing 
other  details.  It  tells  why  they  went  to  Norway, 
some  trouble  they  had  there,  and  how  they  tried  to 
save  the  ship  when  the  storm  struck  her,  but  the 
story  is  no  better;  the  impression  is  not  so  strong. 
The  shorter  version  continues  to  make  the  greater 
impression  and  is  the  one  most  often  read.     Thus  we 


232  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

see  the  importance  of  proper  selection  and  how  selec 
tion  means  omission — elimination  of  the  unessential. 

Thomas  Hardy,  the  great  novelist  and  author  o 
many  novels  of  unusual  interest  and  power,  once  tolc 
the  present  writer,  when  asked  why  he  had  stoppec 
writing  novels,  that  he  had  done  so  because  he  nov 
felt  that  he  could  say  more  in  four  pages  of  poetr 
than  in  four  hundred  of  prose.  Long  novels,  wit! 
detailed  accounts  of  many  incidents  happening  in  mam 
places  and  through  a  long  period  of  time,  have  thei 
place;  but  it  is  the  short,  intense,  concrete  story  o 
one  fundamental  intention,  that  best  illustrates  tin 
need  of  selection  of  material. 

The  Introduction  in  Narration.  Formal  beginning; 
do  not  improve  narration,  for  they  tend  to  deader 
interest  at  the  moment  when  it  should  be  made  mos 
lively.  And  yet,  certain  information  must  be  given  a 
the  outset  if  the  attention  of  the  listener  or  reader  is  t( 
be  aroused.  It  is  always  best  to  give  this  informatioi 
naturally,  spontaneously,  and  strikingly.  While  a  se 
formula  soon  becomes  commonplace  and  dull,  still  th< 
narrator  must  answer,  or  at  least  give  a  promise  of  i 
full  answer  to  be  given  later,  the  following  four  ques 
tions,  called  the  four  "W's,"  who,  where,  when,  why' 
The  reason  for  these  answers  is  fundamental  and  psy 
chological.  The  mind  must  have  certain  definite  things 
to  grasp  before  it  can  lend  itself  to  a  story  about  any 
thing;  in  a  word,  give  attention.  It  is  well  to  not< 
how  all  successful  stories,  which  do  get  and  hold  om 
attention,  begin  as  we  have  indicated.     After  reading 


NARRATION  233 

the  following  " beginnings"  you  may  test  their  ade- 
quacy by  asking  yourself  if  sufficient  interest  is  aroused 
to  make  you  desire  to  continue. 
The  Iliad  begins : 

"Achilles'  wrath,  to  Greece  the  direful  spring 
Of  woes  unnumber'd,  heavenly  goddess,  sing! 
That  wrath  which  hurl'd  to  Pluto's  gloomy  reign 
The  souls  of  mighty  chiefs  untimely  slain." 

The  Mneid  begins: 

''Arms,  and  the  man  I  sing,  who,  fore'd  by  Fate, 
And  haughty  Juno's  unrelenting  hate, 
Expell'd  and  exil'd,  left  the  Trojan  shore." 

The  Ancient  Mariner  begins: 

"It  is  an  ancient  Mariner, 

And  he  stoppeth  one  of  three. 
'By  thy  long  grey  beard  and  glittering  eye, 
Now  wherefore  stopp'st  thou  me? 

"'The  bridegroom's  doors  are  opened  wide, 
And  I  am  next  of  kin; 
The  guests  are  met,  the  feast  is  set; 
May'st  hear  the  merry  din.'" 

The  Courtship  of  Miles  Standish  begins: 

"In  the  Old  Colony  days,  in  Plymouth  the  land  of  the  Pilgrims, 
To  and  fro  in  a  room  of  his  simple  and  primitive  dwelling, 
Clad  in  doublet  and  hose,  and  boots  of  Cordovan  leather, 
Strode,  with  a  martial  air,  Miles  Standish  the  Puritan  captain." 

Stevenson  thus  introduces  us  to  Treasure  Island: 

"Squire  Trelawney,  Dr.  Livesay,  and  the 
rest  of  these  gentlemen,  having  asked  me  to 
write  down  the  whole  particulars  about  Treas- 


234  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

ure  Island  from  the  beginning  to  the  end,  keep- 
ing nothing  back  but  the  bearings  of  the  is- 
land, and  that  only  because  there  is  still  treas- 
ure yet  to  be  lifted,  I  take  my  pen  in  hand  in 
the  year  of  grace  17 — ,  and  go  back  to  the 
time  when  my  father  kept  the  'Admiral  Ben- 
bow  '  Inn,  and  the  brown  old  seaman  with  the 
saber  cut,  first  took  up  his  lodging  under  our 
roof." 

Uncle  Tom's  Cabin  begins: 

"Late  in  the  afternoon  of  a  chilly  day  in 
February,  two  gentlemen  were  sitting  alone 
over  their  wine  in  a  well-furnished  dining  par- 
lor, in  the  town  of  P ,  in  Kentucky.  There 

were  no  servants  present,  and  the  gentlemen, 
with  chairs  closely  approaching,  seemed  to  be 
discussing  some  subject  with  great  earnest- 


And,  finally,  Poe  begins  The  Cask  of  Amontillado  in 
this  manner: 

"The  thousand  injuries  of  Fortunato  I  had 
borne  as  I  best  could,  but  when  he  ventured 
upon  insult  I  vowed  revenge." 

These  introductions  are  copied  at  random  out  of  all 
kinds  of  stories,  long  and  short,  ancient  and  modern, 
in  prose  and  in  verse,  and  yet  they  are  all  alike  in  con- 
taining, or  in  indirectly  suggesting,  enough  of  an  answer 
to  the  "four  W's"  to  make  anyone  alive  to  the  doings 
of  human  beings  in  all  sorts  of  conditions,  want  to  read 
on. 


NARRATION  235 

They  are  ail  good  introductions,  but  no  better  than 
hundreds  of  others.  But  they  do  more  than  answer 
the  four  questions;  they  give  some  hint  of  what  the 
story  is  about,  of  the  environment  or  setting  of  the 
story,  of  the  mood  of  the  narrator,  and  of  the  possible 
denouement.  In  a  word,  they  make  us  ask  more  ques- 
tions than  they  answer;  they  arouse  our  interest,  they 
excite  our  feelings,  and  give  a  promise  of  something 
worth  while  if  we  continue  to  read. 

Motivation.  There  is  no  use  of  telling  a  story  unless 
the  reader  or  listener  is  made  to  feel  an  irresistible  im- 
pulse to  follow  it  to  the  end.  This  cannot  be  left  to 
chance.  It  must  be  carefully  planned  from  the  outset. 
In  every  properly  constructed  story  there  comes  a 
point  of  intensified  interest,  furnishing  the  dynamic 
force  which  surcharges  the  whole  of  the  story,  increas- 
ing as  the  end  approaches.  The  earlier  this  comes  in 
the  story  the  better. 

There  are  many  ways  of  describing  this  moment. 
Some  call  it  the  " incentive  moment,"  but  we  prefer  a 
stronger  statement.  It  is  best  considered  as  the  dramatic 
germ  from  which  all  the  action  grows.  It  is  the  motive 
which  is  of  sufficient  power  to  cause  certain  definite 
results  to  follow.  Given  such  a  motive,  the  results 
must  follow.  It  is  more  than  incentive,  more  than  ex- 
citing; it  is  energizing,  it  is  motivizing.  It  is  the  power 
which  sets  the  story  going,  and  which  promises  an  end- 
ing that  is  in  keeping.  It  will  set  going  other  motives 
which,  in  turn,  may  repeat  the  process,  but  it  is  the 
important  center  of  motivation  because  it  starts  the 


236  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

process.  The  chief  essential  of  the  introduction  of  a 
story,  then,  is  its  motivation. 

Its  very  importance  may  lead  some  to  overdo  the 
statement  of  it.  The  motivation  must  be  made  evi- 
dent, so  that  there  is  no  doubt  about  its  genuineness, 
but  it  must  be  veiled,  as  it  were.  It  must  be  a  promise, 
yet  somewhat  vague  and  indefinite.  It  must  tell  that 
there  is  to  be  a  revelation,  but  it  must  not  reveal  too 
much.  There  must  be  an  element  of  suspense  to 
arouse  attention,  to  stimulate  it  into  interest,  to  in- 
tensify that  interest  until  nothing  but  the  denouement 
can  satisfy  it.  Study  the  wording  of  the  motivation  so 
as  to  make  it  a  real  appeal,  a  challenge. 

In  the  quotation  from  Stevenson's  Treasure  Island 
there  is  motivation  in  the  title  itself,  Treasure  Island, 
but  interest  is  deepened  when  it  is  said  that  the  bearings 
of  the  island  cannot,  for  the  present,  be  divulged,  and 
by  the  mention  of  the  "  brown  old  seaman,  with  the 
saber  cut."  That  saber  cut  seems  to  suggest  things. 
Its  connotation  is  very  large.  A  better  introduction 
could  not  be  conceived  for  such  a  story  as  Treasure 
Island. 

Poe's  introduction  to  the  Cask  of  Amontillado  is 
equally  good.  We  now  quote  the  first  two  paragraphs 
to  give  the  motivation: 

"The  thousand  injuries  of  Fortunato  I  had 
borne  as  best  I  could;  but  when  he  ventured 
upon  insult,  I  vowed  revenge.  You,  who  so 
well  know  the  nature  of  my  soul,  will  not  sup- 
pose, however,  that  I  gave  utterance  to  a 


NARRATION  237 

threat.  At  length  I  would  be  avenged;  this 
was  a  point  definitely  settled — but  the  very 
definiteness  with  which  it  was  resolved  pre- 
cluded the  idea  of  risk.  I  must  not  only  pun- 
ish, but  punish  with  impunity.  A  wrong  is 
unredressed  when  retribution  overtakes  the 
redresser.  It  is  equally  unredressed  when  the 
avenger  fails  to  make  himself  felt  as  such  to 
him  who  has  done  the  wrong. 

"It  must  be  understood  that  neither  by  word 
nor  deed  had  I  given  Fortunato  cause  to  doubt 
my  good  will.  I  continued,  as  was  my  wont, 
to  smile  in  his  face,  and  he  did  not  perceive 
that  my  smile  now  was  at  the  thought  of  his 
immolation." 

The  Cask  cf  Amontillado  is  a  perfect  work  of  art  as 
far  as  the  construction  of  the  short  story  goes.  Some 
will  not  like  the  theme,  but  the  handling  of  it  is  perfect. 
Here,  in  these  two  paragraphs,  we  have  such  motiva- 
tion as  sets  the  reader  off  in  haste  to  find  the  fulfillment 
of  the  promise  vaguely  given.  Here  we  have  perfect 
motivation;  it  suggests  much;  it  conceals  much  more. 

Simple  Narration.  Simple  narration  is  relating  a 
series  of  events  growing  out  of  the  initial  situation 
when  it  is  so  undramatic  that  it  does  not  lead  to  other 
situations.  Simple  narration  usually  follows  the  chrono- 
logical order.  It  has  no  plot;  that  is,  there  are  no 
obstacles  or  other  retarding  influences.  It  moves 
rapidly  to  an  obvious  conclusion  which  can  be  readily 
accepted  without  question  or  explanation.  Anecdotes, 
minor    incidents,    brief    bngraphical    sketches,     and 


238  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

travelogues,  are  suitable  subjects  for  simple  narratives. 
In  a  word,  all  narratives  in  which  the  use  of  complicat- 
ing material  is  avoided  are  classed  under  this  heading. 
Such  simplicity  as  leads  to  perfect  clearness  is  the  most 
notable  characteristic.  The  following  anecdote  illus- 
trates simple  narration: 

"A  Binghamton,  N.  Y.,  newspaper  tells  an 
amusing  anecdote  of  a  German  lad  recently 
arrived  in  this  country.  Having  occasion  one 
day  to  assert  his  positive  knowledge  of  some 
matter  under  discussion,  he  declared  that  he 
knew  it  as  well  as  he  knew  that  he  was  living. 
'How  do  you  know  you're  alive?'  jokingly 
asked  a  friend.  'I  know  it  by  my  nickles/ 
replied  the  young  Teuton.  The  oddity  of  the 
reply  produced  much  laughter,  especially 
when  it  was  discovered  that  by  his  'nickles' 
he  meant  his  five  senses." 

Plot  Narration  differs  from  simple  narration  in  that 
it  becomes  complex  by  the  introduction  of  obstacles 
to  be  overcome.  The  initial  situation  is  but  the  first 
of  a  series  in  each  of  which,  up  to  the  turning  point, 
new  and  more  difficult  obstacles  are  found  in  the  way, 
or  in  which  the  various  threads  of  the  story  get  more 
and  more  entangled.  In  plot  narration  the  simple 
chronological  order  of  events  is  no  longer  possible, 
nor  does  the  story  move  on  toward  a  foregone  con- 
clusion, foregone  as  far  as  the  reader  is  concerned 
The  various  threads  of  the  story  necessitate  a  going 
back  over  the  same  period  of  time  to  tell  different  little 


NARRATION  239 

stories  whose  convergence  at  certain  points  make  new 
situations,  or  new  knots  to  be  untied.  The  logical 
order  supersedes  the  chronological;  events  are  con- 
sidered not  in  the  order  they  occurred,  but  in  such  a 
way  as  to  bring  out  their  relation  to  each  other  in 
the  light  of  the  law  of  cause  and  effect.  Having  de- 
termined what  the  climax  is  to  be,  the  governing  prin- 
ciple determining  what  incidents  and  what  situations 
shall  be  used,  is  logic.  The  word  "  because "  comes 
into  use.  Incidents  are  useful  only  " because"  they 
are  the  result  of  what  has  gone  before,  or  because  they 
they  are  the  cause  of  what  is  to  follow,  or  for  both 
reasons.  This  is  the  " logic  of  events"  and  is  true  to 
life. 

It  is  easy  enough  to  place  obstacles  in  a  character's 
way.  That  is  not  the  problem.  The  problem  arises  in 
making  him  overcome  the  obstacles  while  remaining 
true  to  his  character  and  without  performing  miracles. 
It  is  easy  to  have  one  man's  story  become  confused 
with  that  of  others;  it  is  difficult  for  the  author  to 
maintain  the  law  of  unity  and  be  clear,  and  to  maintain 
the  law  of  coherence  and  not  lose  the  thread  of  the 
story,  while  handling  conflicting  elements. 

The  law  of  proportion  must  be  rigidly  observed  in 
plot  narration  by  keeping  all  minor  plots  properly 
subordinated  to  the  major  plot,  lest  they  attract  to 
themselves  more  than  their  share  of  attention.  Good 
plot  construction  demands  clear  thinking  and  constant 
practice. 

Plot  Development.    It  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  the 


240  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

plot  of  a  story  is  the  plan  by  which  the  writer  works  in 
his  attempt  to  produce  a  certain  definite  effect  upon 
the  reader.  The  writer  knows  from  the  start  what  the 
outcome  is  to  be;  the  reader  does  not.  He  reads  to 
find  out.  If,  however,  his  interest  is  not  aroused  very 
early  in  the  story,  if  there  is  not  sufficient  evidence, 
motivation,  that  the  story  will  increase  in  interest  to 
the  end,  he  will  stop  reading.  The  first  essential,  then, 
in  all  narration  where  the  " point"  of  the  story  is  the 
reason  for  telling  it,  is  to  develop  the  plot  sanely  and 
artistically.  The  writer  must  not  take  too  great  liberty,, 
must  not  presume  too  far  upon  the  good  nature  and 
patience  of  his  reader.  While  melodramatic  plots 
may  have  their  place,  it  is  a  relatively  small  one. 
They  are  not  always  "sane,"  and  they  often  fall  short 
of  being  artistic,  that  is,  of  being  well  proportioned  and 
of  possessing  the  quality  of  elegance. 

k  prime  essential  in  plot  development  is  to  learn  to 
maintain  "the  fitness  of  things"  in  the  story  If  the 
initial  incident  has  given  the  story  adequate  and 
suitable  motivation  so  that  the  reader  cannot  get 
away  from  the  challenge  it  contains,  if  it  "sets  things 
going"  and  leads  to  even  more  dramatic  situations,, 
making  "confusion  worse  confounded,"  there  will  be 
abundant  action.  Here  if  you  are  not  on  your  guard, 
the  plot  may  run  away  with  you.  The  law  of  "the 
fitness  of  things"  will  hold  you  within  bounds.  It  is 
not  "fitting"  to  complicate  the  plot  too  much,  employ- 
ing more  incidents,  more  hard  situations,  than  are 
necessary.     "Hair-breadth    escapes"    and    "thrilling 


NARRATION  211 

adventures"  should  be  as  rare  in  stories  as  they  are 
in  the  kind  of  life  you  are  depicting.  When  they  are 
too  freely  employed  in  a  story,  cheap  melodrama  is  the 
result.  In  the  "good"  story,  things  are  not  overdone. 
There  must  be  that  reserve  characteristic  of  good  poise 
•everywhere.  A  few  situations,  properly  related  and  in- 
terrelated, lead  logically  to  the  inevitable  conclusion. 
Too  many  situations  and  too  many  minor  incidents 
make  the  story  so  drag  as  to  confuse  the  issue  or  so 
overshadow  it  as  to  ruin  the  story.  Stop  the  com- 
plicating process  in  plot  development  before  it  begins 
to  pall  upon  the  reader.  Gradually  introduce  the 
resolving  forces  so  that,  one  after  another,  the  ob- 
stacles are  overcome  and  the  climax  and  the  denoue- 
ment are  so  reached  as  to  fulfill  the  promise  given  in 
the  motivation.  If  you  have  been  careful  in  selection, 
in  arrangement,  and  in  observing  the  "  fitness  of 
things"  you  will  succeed. 

Shakespeare's  The  Merchant  of  Venice  not  only  il- 
lustrates the  important  problem  of  complicating  the 
plot;  it  also  reveals  how  even  a  master  may  err.  The 
play  is  a  delightful  romantic  comedy.  The  main 
plot  is  the  winning  of  the  hand  of  Portia  by  Bassanio. 
If  Bassanio  had  had  money  and  if  Portia's  father  had 
not  handicapped  her  by  compelling  her  to  rely  upon 
some  suitor's  luck  in  choosing  the  right  casket,  there 
would  have  been  no  plot,  no  play.  Bassanio  would 
have  gone  to  Belmont,  Portia  would  have  accepted 
Jiim,  and,  in  due  time  there  would  have  been  a  wedding. 

How  did  Shakespeare  complicate  the  plot?     First  by 


242  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

making  Bassanio's  financial  embarrassments  drive 
him  to  his  friend  Antonio,  who  was  willing  to  help 
him  but  his  money  was  tied  up  in  his  ships  and  their 
cargoes.  So  Antonio  goes  to  Shylock,  a  Jew  money- 
lender and  bitter  personal  enemy,  who  sees  the  oppor- 
tunity to  revenge  himself  upon  Antonio.  Hence  the 
matter  of  the  bond — a  trap  to  catch  Antonio. 

With  the  money  borrowed  from  Antonio,  who  bor- 
rowed from  Shylock,  who  borrowed  from  Tubal,  Bas- 
sanio  goes  to  Belmont,  where  he  easily  overcomes  the 
other  obstacle  by  choosing  the  right  casket. 

It  is  a  universal  law  that  all  subplots  should  be  kept 
subordinate  to  the  main  plot.  Shakespeare  violates 
that  law,  for  even  Zeus  nods,  and  allows  the  minor 
"bond  plot"  so  to  overshadow  the  main  plot  as  to 
endanger  its  success.  The  strong  personality  of  Shy- 
lock  seems  to  have,  for  the  moment,  carried  the  great 
dramatist  away  from  his  purpose  of  writing  a  comedy, 
and  in  the  trial  scene  the  play  verges  upon  tragedy. 
But  the  tragedy  is  averted.  Shakespeare  masters  the 
situation  by  having  Portia  save  the  day  in  a  most 
charming,  if  utterly  impossible,  manner.  Shakespeare 
saves  the  day  by  a  hair's  breadth.  Shylock  departs, 
defeated.    The  last  act  is  pure  comedy  and  delightful. 

This  is  our  point :  Shakespeare  could  save  the  situa- 
tion. But  it  is  not  safe  for  most  people  to  allow  minor 
plots  to  overshadow  the  main  plot,  lest  in  trying  to 
save  themselves  they  so  lack  verisimilitude  as  to  cause 
their  readers  to  give  up  in  despair. 

Edgar  Allan  Poe's   Requisites   of  the   Short  Story. 


NARRATION  243 

According  to  Edgar  Allan  Poe,  the  first  to  formulate 
the  essentials  of  the  short  story,  the  five  essentials  are: 
First,  totality,  by  which  he  meant  that  it  must  be  so 
short  and  compact  that  it  can  be  read  at  a  sitting,  and 
hence  easily  comprehended  as  a  whole;  second,  imme- 
diateness,  by  which  he  meant  that  it  should  aim  at  a 
single  effect  and  that  everything  should  contribute  to 
that  aim;  "if  the  very  initial  sentence  tend  not  to  the 
outbringing  of  this  effect,  then  it  has  failed  in  its  first 
step";  third,  compression.  "In  the  whole  composi- 
tion there  should  not  be  one  word  written  of  which  the 
tendency,  direct  or  indirect,  is  not  to  the  one  pre- 
established  design";  fourth,  it  should  possess  veri- 
similitude, that  is,  it  should  be  within  the  range  of 
possibility;  fifth,  it  must  have  finality.  It  must  give 
the  impression  of  beginning  with  the  opening  sentence 
and  ending  with  the  last,  that  when  the  story  is  ended 
the  matter  is  closed. 

Let  these  suggestions  from  the  master,  Poe,  guide  you 
in  your  short  story  writing.  And  if  you  will  heed  the 
following  words  from  another  critic  of  the  short  story, 
you  will  find  your  task  easier.  "The  great  artist  is  he 
who  knows  how  to  interest  without  fatiguing  us;  who 
gives  us  just  enough  knowledge  of  his  theme  to  invest 
with  overwhelming  significance  what  he  chooses  to 
reveal;  who  makes  one's  imagination  the  confederate 
of  his  own  by  leaving  us  to  supply  much  which  he  only 
suggests." 

Completing  Stories.  A  good  practice  in  plot  con- 
struction may  be  found  in  completing  stories.    Let  the 


244  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

teacher  read  a  few  pages  of  some  short  story  that  is  not 
known  to  the  pupils.  Do  not  tell  the  name  of  the 
story,  or  the  author,  and  do  not  read  more  than 
enough  to  get  the  story  well  started  with  all  the 
principal  characters  introduced.  Then  have  the 
class  complete  the  story  as  they  think  it  should 
be,  or  might  be  completed,  in  view  of  the  opening, 
the  motivation. 

Poe  is  said  to  have  figured  out  the  end  of  Dickens' 
Barnaby  Rudge  after  reading  the  first  few  chapters. 
Dickens  died,  leaving  one  of  his  greatest  novels  only 
half  finished,  The  Mystery  of  Edwin  Drood,  and  his  son 
and  others  have  since  completed  it.  A  few  years  ago 
a  group  of  English  writers  worked  upon  the  same  story, 
each  offering  his  scheme  for  completing  it.  This  prac- 
tice has  ample  warrant. 

The  Paragraph  in  Narration.  Strictly  speaking,  there 
are  no  paragraphs  in  narration.  A  long  narrative,  a 
story,  should  of  course  contain  expository  and  descrip- 
tive paragraphs.  But  narration  does  not  proceed  by 
paragraphs  in  the  way  exposition  does.  And  the  reason 
is  evident:  exposition  deals  with  thoughts,  which  can- 
not be  developed  without  carefully  constructed  para- 
graphs; narration  deals  with  incidents  which  are  best 
related  in  a  less  formal  way.  In  fact,  narration  becomes 
mechanical  when  one  tries  to  employ  the  machinery  of 
the  strict  paragraph  developed  from  the  topic  sentence. 
The  semblance  of  paragraphs  used  in  narration  indicates 
only  convenient  stopping  places  and  transitions  from 
one   incident   to   another.      Consequently   these   con- 


NARRATION  245 

venient,  superficially  marked-off  stages  in  a  story  are 
more  numerous  and  shorter  than  regular  paragraphs; 
usually  are. 

Note  the  following: 

"The  ship  began  to  show  the  first  signs  of 
breaking  up :  hammered  to  death  by  the  sea, 
she  discharged  the  oakum  from  her  opening 
seams,  and  her  decks  began  to  gape  and  grin 
fore  and  aft.  Corpses  of  drunken  sailors 
drowned  between  decks  now  floated  up  amid- 
ships, and  washed  and  rolled  about  among  the 
survivors'  feet.  These,  seeing  no  hope,  went 
about  making  up  all  quarrels,  and  shaking 
hands  in  token  of  a  Christian  end.  One  or  two 
came  to  Dodd  with  their  hands  out. 

"' Avast,  ye  lubbers!'  said  he,  angrily,  'do 
you  think  I  have  time  for  nonsense?  Folksel 
ahoy!  Axes,  and  cut  away  the  weather 
shrouds ! ' 

"It  was  done:  the  foremast  went  by  the 
board  directly,  and  fell  to  leeward;  a  few 
blows  of  the  axe  from  Dodd's  own  hand  sent 
the  mainmast  after  it. 

"The  Agra  rose  a  streak,  and  the  next  wave 
carried  her  a  little  further  inshore. 

"  And  now  the  man  in  charge  of  the  hawser 
reported  with  joy  that  there  was  a  strain  on  it. 

"This  gave  those  on  board  a  hope  of  life. 
Dodd  bustled,  and  had  the  hawser  carefully 
paid  out  by  two  men,  while  he  himself  secured 
the  other  end  in  the  mizzen  top;  he  had  left 
the  mast  standing  on  purpose." 

— Very  Hard  Cash:  Charles  Reads 


246  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

Action  in  Narration.  Since  narration  deals  with  in- 
cidents it  must  have  action  or  movement.  It  must  get 
somewhere,  and  by  a  definite,  though  sometimes  cir- 
cuitous, path.  The  movement  may  be  slow  or  moder- 
ate or  rapid;  and  the  speed  is  always  determined  by 
the  purpose  of  the  narrator.  The  movement  of  a  story 
need  not  be  the  same  throughout,  and  rarely  is,  because 
the  purpose  varies.  Where  the  purpose  is  to  develop 
suspense  and  intense  excitement,  the  speed  is  naturally 
accelerated,  and  short  sentences  and  appropriate  words, 
such  as  suggest  rapid  motion,  are  used,  as  in  the  early 
part  of  the  Ancient  Mariner  and  The  Cask  of  Amon- 
tillado. In  stories  of  rapid  movement,  the  qualities  of 
unity  and  coherence  are  very  evident;  coherence  espe- 
cially is  conducive  to  speed. 

The  following  brief  paragraph  illustrates  rapid  move- 
ment in  narration: 

"One  shove  into  the  current;  one  short 
1 coast'  as  we  neared  the  white  spot;  one  in- 
stant of  grazing  the  edge  of  the  rock;  one 
leap;  two  splashes  as  we  cut  through  the 
whitecapped  waves;  a  sudden  turn  to  avoid 
the  wall  of  rock  beyond;  a  landing  to  empty 
the  canoe,  now  full  of  water,  and  to  take  in 
the  Small  Boy.  That  is  all!  We  have  made 
the  four-foot  leap!    Time,  thirty  seconds!" 

— Canoe  Stories:  Charles  Elbert  Rhodes 

In  a  short  story  of  considerable  length  there  must  be 
moments  of  relaxation,  lest  the  excitement  become  too 
intense  and  defeat  the  author's  purpose.     Then  the 


NARRATION  247 

speed  is  lessened  by  bringing  in  retarding  passages 
descriptive  or  explanatory  in  character,  and  by  the  use 
of  longer  sentences  and  appropriate  words.  For  in- 
stance, after  the  intense  murder  scene  in  Macbeth,  the 
porter  scene  comes  as  a  retarding  element,  bringing  the 
reader's  emotions  back  to  a  normal  state.  Many  writ- 
ers also  resort  to  the  practice  of  carrying  the  retarding 
process  to  the  limit  by  using  what  is  known  as  retro- 
spective narrative.  This  not  only  reduces  the  speed 
until  it  stops;  it  goes  back  to  a  point  previous  to  that 
indicated  in  the  opening  situation,  and  brings  the  story 
up  to  the  present  time.  For  instance,  in  Silas  Marner, 
the  story  begins  with  an  account  of  Silas  in  such  an 
awkward  situation  that  our  interest  and  our  sympathy 
are  aroused.  Then  the  author,  feeling  that  her  readers 
will  want  to  know  the  cause  of  that  situation,  goes 
back  to  an  earlier  time,  and  by  means  of  retrospective 
narrative  satisfies  the  reader  and  is  in  a  position  to 
continue  the  story.  The  same  principle  of  retrospec- 
tive narrative  is  illustrated  in  Lancelot  and  Elaine,  which 
begins  with  Elaine  admiring  the  shield  of  the  unknown 
knight,  and  then  goes  back  to  tell  whose  shield  it  is 
and  how  it  happened  to  be  there.  In  both  cases,  it  is 
clear  that  the  author  realized  that  the  situation  chosen 
as  the  initial  one  was  better  qualified  to  arouse  interest 
than  an  earlier  one  would  have  been. 

It  must  not  be  inferred  that  a  story  of  slow  move- 
ment, where  there  is  very  lifctle  action,  is  necessarily 
devoid  of  interest.  Certain  kinds  of  stories  are  not 
at  all  susceptible  to  rapid  movement,  and  yet  are  full 


248  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

of  interest.  In  Poe's  Raven,  the  movement  is  slow 
throughout.  Lut  such  movement  exactly  suits  the 
subject,  and  the  mode  of  treatment,  the  character  of 
the  man,  and  his  surroundings.  And  notice  how  the 
slow  movement  is  indicated: 

"Once  upon  a  midnight  dreary,  while  I  pondered,  weak  and  weary, 
Over  many  a  quaint  and  curious  volume  of  forgotten  lore, — 
While  I  nodded,  nearly  napping,  suddenly  there  came  a  tapping, 
As  of  someone  gently  rapping,  rapping  at  my  chamber  door. 
1  Tis  some  visitor,'  I  muttered,  'tapping  at  my  chamber  door; 
Only  this  and  nothing  more.'" 

The  words  suggest  a  leisurely  movement,  the  repeti- 
tions do  the  same,  and  the  uncertainty  expressed  indi- 
cates that  such  a  pace  suits  the  subject  and  the  mood 
of  the  narrator. 

The  skillful  story-teller  is  ever  on  the  alert  to  acquire 
a  suitable  vocabulary  to  express  slow,  medium,  and 
rapid  movement — leisurely  and  halting  words,  repeat- 
edly retarding  the  action,  for  stories  of  intense  interest, 
but  slow  progress;  neutral  verbs,  adjectives,  and  ad- 
verbs for  stories  of  moderate  speed;  and  action  words 
vividly  suggestive  of  rapid  motion.  The  question 
of  diction  has  a  vital  bearing  upon  effectiveness  in 
narration. 

Characters  in  Narration.  However  interesting  a 
situation  may  be,  however  alluring  the  plot,  their  in- 
teresting and  alluring  qualities  are  due  to  the  human 
element  found  in  the  characters.  It  is  impossible  to 
conceive  of  either  a  situation  or  a  plot  without  charac- 
ters;   so  people  are,  after   all,  the  most  essential  ele- 


NARRATION  249 

ments  of  narration.  People  are  interesting  in  them- 
selves, sometimes,  but  really  to  know  people  we  must 
see  them  in  striking  situations  and  see  how  they  act 
and  hear  what  they  say,  and,  if  possible,  learn  their 
thoughts.  And  as  a  series  of  situations,  arranged  ac- 
cording to  the  logic  of  events  and  leading  to  a  definite 
conclusion,  constitutes  a  plot,  it  is  evident  that  the 
chief  interest  of  a  story  is  in  following  the  characters 
through  the  story  and  observing  how  they  master 
situations,  or  are  mastered  by  them,  and  how  they 
stand  at  the  end  of  the  story. 

What  characters  and  how  many  shall  be  introduced 
into  a  story f  The  principle  of  unity  answers:  only 
those  absolutely  essential  to  carry  on  the  story.  Need- 
less characters  not  only  tempt  the  writer  to  violate  the 
law  of  unity;  they  get  in  the  way  of  the  essential  char- 
acters and  tempt  the  writer  to  violate  the  law  of 
coherence  as  well.  And  it  is  equally  evident  that  the 
law  of  proportion  can  tolerate  no  unnecessary  char- 
acters. Dickens  sometimes,  as  in  Our  Mutual  Friend 
introduced  as  many  as  seventy  people  into  one  book, 
rendering  it  almost  impossible  for  the  reader  to  follow 
the  thread  of  the  story.  On  the  other  hand,  drama- 
tists, especially  modern  dramatists,  give  a  wholesome 
example  to  writers  of  stories  who  are  willing  to  learn. 
Economy  necessitates  few  characters;  the  result  is 
stronger  plays.  Charles  Reade,  the  dramatic  novelist, 
wrote  strong  novels  because  he  conceived  them 
dramatically. 

Introduction  of  Characters.    There  are  various  ways 


250  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

of  introducing  characters,  but  the  method  of  the 
dramatist  is  again  the  best.  Introduce  them  into  the 
story  at  the  times  when  they  actually  enter  it.  It 
is  far  more  effective  than  to  line  them  all  up  at  the 
beginning  before  the  story  commences. 

As  to  the  manner  of  introduction  there  is  a  larger 
option.  A  common  way,  especially  with  the  earlier 
novelists,  is  to  have  the  author  retard  the  story  by 
means  of  elaborate  descriptions  of  the  character's  ap- 
pearance and  dress  that  the  reader  might  see  how  they 
looked,  and  by  equally  elaborate  expositions  to  reveal 
their  inner  lives  and  their  motives.  This  is  still  done. 
However,  the  descriptions  and  expositions  are  much 
more  brief  and  more  suggestive. 

Another  method  is  to  have  the  characters  describe 
each  other,  or  at  least  have  some  of  them  do  so.  This 
adds  variety  and  often  results  in  various  descriptions 
of  the  same  character,  from  different  points  of  view, 
and  imposes  upon  the  reader  the  duty  and  pleasure  of 
deciding  which  description  is  correct.  So,  Lady  Mac- 
beth describes  her  husband. 

The  third,  and  perhaps  the  best,  method,  is  to  bring 
in  the  character  with  the  briefest  possible  introduction, 
such  as  a  few  words  of  running  comment,  and  then 
develop  the  character  by  means  of  what  he  says  and 
does.  This  method  has  the  advantage  of  being  eco- 
nomical and  indirect.  The  character  grows  upon  the 
reader,  just  as  in  real  life,  and  the  reader  is  more  likely 
to  be  on  the  alert  to  discover  the  traits  of  character  as 
they  emerge  and  to  be  better  pleased  with  the  result 


NARRATION  251 

than  when  he  is  told  what  a  character  is  by  means  of 
long  expository  paragraphs. 

In  using  the  third  method,  the  writer  will  naturally 
select  incidents  possessing  character-revealing  quali- 
ties. This  is  always  the  best  way  to  write  biographical 
sketches.  And,  furthermore,  it  helps  one  to  avoid  the 
error  of  creating  stationary  characters.  The  only  men 
whose  characters  have  ceased  to  change,  for  better  or 
for  worse,  are  dead  men.  As  the  experiences  of  life 
affect  men's  character,  so  must  the  plot  of  a  story  react 
upon  the  characters  concerned  with  the  plot,  as  they 
do  in  all  of  George  Eliot's  novels. 

Another  caution  to  be  kept  in  mind  in  developing 
characters  is  against  inconsistency.  Let  every  char- 
acter always  act  and  speak  "in  character,"  as  the  say- 
ing is.  Keep  him  human;  keep  him  sane  (unless  the 
purpose  is  to  depict  an  insane  person) ;  keep  him  true 
to  himself.  Too  much  care  cannot  be  given  to  the  de- 
picting and  developing  of  characters  if  one  would  make 
them  real  persons  instead  of  types  or  mere  personifica- 
tions without  real  life,  as  in  the  old  morality  plays. 
It  was  the  invariable  custom  of  the  great  dramatist 
Ibsen  to  plan  out  the  whole  previous  life  of  the  charac- 
ters in  his  plays  even  though  the  play  used  only  a  small 
fraction  of  the  life  of  the  character.  Such  studious 
care  pays. 

Conversation  in  Narrative.  Most  people  must  talk. 
The  law  of  silence  should  not  be  imposed  upon  them 
even  in  books.  If  the  characters  in  books  do  not  talk 
they  will  seem,  and  be,  unnatural.    Let  them  talk.    It 


252  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

will  advance  the  story  by  properly  emphasizing  the 
dramatic  elements,  as  it  does  in  the  drama.  It  will 
reveal  character  far  better  than  any  description.  It 
will  break  the  monotony,  add  zest  and  vividness,  and 
make  the  characters  real  and  lifelike.  Conversation  is 
fundamental  to  good  narration. 

So  important  is  it,  that  we  add  the  testimony  of  two 
successful  writers.  Anthony  Trollope  says  in  his  Auto- 
biography : 

Y  1 

"The  ordinary  talk  of  ordinary  people  is 
carried  on  in  short,  sharp,  expressive  sen- 
tences, which  very  frequently  are  never  com- 
pleted, the  language  of  which  even  among 
educated  people  is  often  incorrect.  The  novel 
writer,  in  constructing  his  dialogue,  must  steer 
between  absolute  accuracy  of  language — which 
would  give  to  his  conversation  the  air  of  pedan- 
try— and  the  slovenly  inaccuracy  of  ordinary 
talkers  (which,  if  closely  followed,  would  offend 
by  an  appearance  of  grimace)  as  to  produce 
upon  the  ear  of  his  readers  a  sense  of  reality. 
If  he  is  quite  real  he  will  seem  to  attempt  to 
be  funny.  If  he  is  quite  correct  he  will  seem  to 
be  unreal.  Above  all,  let  the  speeches  be  short. 
No  character  should  utter  above  a  dozen  words 
at  a  breath,  unless  the  writer  can  justify  to 
himself  a  longer  speech  by  the  specialty  of  the 


In  his  Backlog  Studies,  Charles  Dudley  Warner  gives 
an  excellent  tribute  to  the  kind  of  conversation  which 
should  be  the  aim  of  writers  who  would  be  true  to  life : 


NARRATION  253 

"  There  is  no  entertainment  so  full  of  quiet 
pleasure  as  the  hearing  a  lady  of  cultivation 
and  refinement  relate  her  day's  experience  in 
her  daily  round  of  calls,  charitable  visits,  shop- 
ping errands  of  relief  and  condolence.  The 
evening's  budget  is  better  than  the  finance 
minister's.  ...  I  don't  mean  gossip,  by  any 
means,  or  scandal.  A  woman  of  culture  skims 
over  that  like  a  bird,  never  touching  it  with 
the  tip  of  a  wing.  What  she  brings  home  is 
the  freshness  and  brightness  of  life.  She 
touches  everything  so  daintily,  she  hits  off  a 
character  in  a  sentence,  she  gives  the  pith  of 
a  dialogue  without  tediousness,  she  mimics 
without  vulgarity,  her  narration  sparkles  but 
it  doesn't  sting,  and  it  gives  a  new  value  and 
freshness  to  common  things.  If  we  could  only 
have  on  the  stage  such  actresses  as  we  have 
in  the  drawing-room!" 

There  is  no  doubt  about  the  popularity  of  books 
abounding  in  conversation.  The  fact  that  " skippers" 
do  not  skip  the  dialogue  is  significant.  And  while  it 
should  not  be  considered  a  sufficient  reason  for  using 
dialogue,  it  deserves  consideration.  The  following  gen- 
eral principles  will  help. 

1.  Use  dialogue  whenever  it  will  actually  advance 
the  action  or  reveal  character.  Never  use  it  for  its 
own  sake.  Meaningless  talk  is  as  bad  in  a  book  as  in 
life. 

2.  Let  all  conversation  be  natural,  not  forced.  Let 
it  be  absolutely  in  keeping  with  the  characters,  reveal- 
ing their  literacy  or  illiteracy,   their  manners,  their 


254  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

refinement,  or  lack  of  it,  their  personal  peculiarities 
and  hobbies,  if  they  have  any;  in  a  word,  let  their 
talk  reveal  as  much  of  themselves  as  it  would  naturally 
be  expected  to  disclose  under  the  circumstances. 

3.  Let  all  conversation  be  sufficiently  striking  and 
valuable  to  warrant  its  use.  Condense  it,  lest  an  exact 
reproduction  tire  the  reader,  or  cause  the  writer  to 
violate  principles  of  unity  and  proportion.  Tone  it 
down,  lest  some  kinds  of  talk  should  seem  too  bad,  or 
too  vulgar,  or  too  commonplace.  Keep  it  brief  and 
vital. 

4.  Make  every  speech,  however  short,  a  complete 
paragraph,  and  be  careful  to  punctuate  it  correctly. 

5.  Avoid  the  monotonous  repetition  of  the  word 
"said."  Increase  your  vocabulary  and  improve  your 
diction  by  learning  at  least  thirty  synonyms  of  "said," 
so  that  each  speech  may  be  introduced  strikingly  and 
with  a  touch  of  suggestive  description  to  add  vividness. 
Such  words  as  remarked,  remonstrated,  echoed,  sighed, 
entreated,  expostulated,  shrieked,  threatened,  drawled, 
hissed,  interrupted,  murmured-,  and  growled  are  among 
the  synonyms  suggested. 

When  only  two  speakers  are  talking,  it  is  effective 
occasionally  to  omit  the  introductory  word. 

The  Climax  in  Narration.  The  fundamental,  ob- 
jective point  in  narration  is  commonly  called  the 
climax.  It  is  the  main  incident  toward  which  all  the 
action  has  progressed,  step  by  step,  from  the  intro- 
ductory situation.  It  must  be  the  complete  and 
satisfactory  fulfillment  of  the  promise,  however  vague, 


NARRATION  255 

made  in  the  opening  situation.  In  the  climax,  the 
interest  should  reach  its  height.  Suspense  gives  place 
to  the  joy  of  discovery,  the  search  is  over  and  the 
treasure  is  found,  the  author's  fundamental  inten- 
tion becomes  the  reader's  acquisition,  the  entangled 
threads  are  disentangled  and  the  knots  are  untied, 
and  the  story  is  told. 

Make  the  climax  count.  Then  stop.  A  long- 
drawn-out  conclusion  mars  the  effect.  When  the 
reader  is  satisfied,  leave  him  satisfied. 

The  Final  Tests  of  Efficiency  in  Narration.  However 
carefully  one  may  write,  he  should  never  consider  his 
work  complete  until  he  has  applied  the  acid  tests  of 
rhetoric  which  must  always  be  used  before  success  is 
assured,  the  tests  of  interest,  which  is  secured  by  a 
proper  combination  of  clearness,  force,  and  fitness  of 
style,  which,  in  turn,  are  achieved  by  means  of  unity, 
coherence,  and  proportion.  As  the  last  three  are  the 
most  fundamental  tests,  in  most  cases  it  will  be  suf- 
ficient to  apply  them  in  the  last  examination. 

The  Tests  of  Unity.  Has  the  whole  story  unity? 
Has  any  material  which  is  not  essential  been  used? 
Are  there  any  digressions  which  retard  the  action 
without  a  compensating  value  in  necessary  informa- 
tion? Have  the  paragraphs  and  the  sentences  the 
quality  of  unity? 

The  ability  to  answer  correctly  the  above  questions 
will  suffice  on  the  matter  of  unity. 

The  Test  of  Coherence.  This  is  the  test  concerning 
arrangement.     Do  the  parts,  selected  according  to  the 


256  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

law  of  unity,  hold  together  as  one  undivided  whole? 
Is  there  an  invisible  thread  binding  all  the  parts  to- 
gether? Do  the  incidents  lead  to  one  another,  logic- 
ally, and  continue  to  do  so  until  the  end  with  ever- 
increasing  interest?  Is  the  relation  between  the  in- 
cidents clearly  indicated  by  proper  connectives  and  by 
logical  transitions?  If  the  plot  is  complicated,  are  the 
minor  elements  so  subordinated  to  the  major  ones  that 
the  subordination  is  clearly  evident?  Is  the  arrange- 
ment such  as  to  produce  force? 

The  Test  of  Proportion.  Is  the  law  of  emphasis 
rigidly  followed  so'  as  to  result  in  a  proper  balance  of 
parts?  Are  incidents  all  so  handled  as  to  point  forward 
toward  the  climax?  Are  the  details  developed  suf- 
ficiently, but  no  more?  Are  the  incidents  emphasized 
by  position  and  elaboration  in  accordance  with  their 
value  in  the  story,  irrespective  of  their  intrinsic  value? 
Is  the  climax  the  most  emphatic  point  of  the  whole 
narrative?  Does  the  whole  narrative  appeal  to  you.  at 
first  thought,  to  be  well  proportioned? 

Dramatization.  The  drama  combines  all  the  forms 
of  discourse,  narration,  description,  explanation,  argu- 
mentation, and  persuasion.  Inasmuch,  however,  as  it 
deals  principally  with  action,  the  proper  place  to  con- 
sider it  is  in  connection  with  narration.  The  drama- 
tization of  scenes  from  books  and  from  actual  life 
furnishes  excellent  practice  in  analysis  of  material,  in 
plot  construction,  in  character  creation,  in  assembling 
of  parts,  and  in  presentation.  Oral  presentations  of 
student-made  plays  are  of  great  value  in  oral  compos-t'on 


NARRATION  257 

and  in  gaining  self-mastery.  It  is  always  interesting 
and  so  furnishes  a  delightful  change  from  the  routine 
of  class  work. 

The  Essentials  of  the  Drama.  The  essentials  of  a 
play  are  three :  the  plot,  which  is  the  plan  according  to 
which  the  action  takes  place;  the  situation,  which  fur- 
nishes the  background  and  the  setting;  and  the  char- 
acters, who  by  their  words  and  actions  tell  the  story  so 
vividly  as  actually  to  reproduce  it.  The  plot  outlines 
what  takes  place  and  why;  the  situation  gives  the  pic- 
ture and  answers  the  question  " Where?";  while  the 
characters  give  life  and  answer  the  question  "Who?". 

An  interesting  plot  must  contain  a  series  of  dramatic 
situations.  A  dramatic  situation  is  a  crisis  demanding 
skillful  dialogue  and  action  on  the  part  of  the  characters 
of  the  play  to  extricate  themselves.  When  the  situa- 
tion is  ridiculous  and  the  characters  are  merely  victims 
of  circumstances,  the  result  is  a  farce  resembling  A 
Comedy  of  Errors;  when  there  is  a  superabundance  of 
romantic  and  abnormally  tragic  situations,  with  thrill- 
ing adventures  and  hairbreadth  escapes,  we  have  a 
melodrama,  like  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin  and  most  drama- 
tized novels  where  the  scenes  are  crowded;  where  the 
play  deals  with  nearly  normal  life,  without  situations 
involving  life  and  death,  and  where  the  humorous  ele- 
ments stop  short  of  the  farcical,  we  have  the  comedy, 
like  As  You  Like  It;  and  where  we  find  a  severe  test 
of  the  very  soul,  often  involving  the  death  of  the  body 
to  remain  true  to  an  ideal,  we  have  the  tragedy,  the 
highest  form  of  literary  art,  such  as  Antigone  and  Hamlet. 


258  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

Dramatic  situations  offer  the  motives  for  the  actions 
of  the  characters.  The  best  way,  then,  to  construct  a 
play,  is  to  decide  upon  the  scene  to  give  the  back- 
ground, the  general  line  of  action  you  wish  to  repre- 
sent, and  the  characters  essential  for  carrying  out  the 
action.  Having  done  this  preliminary  work,  plan  a 
series  of  striking  dramatic  situations,  bringing  the  char- 
acters into  relations  which  demand  explanation.  As 
in  the  story,  so  here  the  plot  is  constructed  by  placing 
obstacles  in  the  way  of  the  characters,  called  compli- 
cating the  plot.  Caution  is  necessary  here  lest  the  plot 
be  too  much  complicated;  unless,  of  course,  you  are 
after  farcical  or  melodramatic  effects.  The  real  work 
of  the  drama  is  the  getting  of  the  characters  out  of 
their  difficulties  by  showing  how  they  overcome  their 
obstacles.  The  climax  is  the  turning  point  which  marks 
the  beginning  of  the  end.  In  Macbeth,  for  instance,  the 
turning  point  is  the  escape  of  Fleance,  after  which 
Macbeth  plays  a  losing  game.  The  denouement  is  the 
final  settlement  of  the  points  at  issue. 

With  the  exception  of  the  stage  directions,  plays  are 
entirely  in  dialogue.  In  other  words,  the  writer  of  the 
play  says  nothing,  aside  from  giving  the  necessary 
directions;  he  makes  the  characters  describe  one 
another,  directly,  as  Caesar  describes  Cassius  in 
Julius  Ccesar,  or  indirectly,  when  the  characters  de- 
scribe themselves  by  their  conversation  and  their  ac- 
tion. If  a  place  is  to  be  described,  a  character  does  it 
in  conversation  with  another.  If  an  opinion  is  to  be 
expressed  or  a  conclusion  is  to  be  drawn,  one  of  the 


NARRATION  259 

characters  must  do  it  naturally  in  the  course  of  his 
conversation.  In  short,  the  dialogue  and  the  action 
tell  the  story,  embellish  it,  and  apply  it,  if  any  applica- 
tion is  necessary,  to  make  its  meaning  or  purpose  clear. 

By  way  of  getting  help  from  literature,  study,  or  re- 
view, some  of  the  plays  you  have  had  in  class  to  see 
how  Shakespeare  selects  dramatic  situations,  how  he 
develops  his  characters,  and  how  he  makes  the  play 
grow  from  his  material.  Read  also  some  simple  one-act 
plays  to  observe  how  plays  are  made  on  a  minor  scale. 

Pageants.  Pageants  differ  from  plays  in  being  more 
spectacular,  in  making  more  of  processions,  tableaux, 
dancing,  music,  and  the  like.  They  have  little  or  no 
plot;  little  or  no  speaking.  They  are  useful  to  repre- 
sent historical  and  other  scenes  where  much  use  can  be 
made  of  effective  costuming.  The  preparing  of  pag- 
eants offers  a  good  opportunity  for  class  work  in  com- 
position. 

Exercises  in  Dramatization  for  Practice 

Simple  scenes  from  ordinary  life:  Dramatize  five  of 
the  following  situations: 

1.  Scene — A  drygoods  store  on  bargain  day. 

Characters — A  clerk,  a  floorwalker,^  house  detective, 
and  three  bargain  seekers. 

Suggestions  for  action:  The  three  bargain  seekers, 
two  of  whom  are  known  to  each  other,  while  the  third 
is  a  stranger  to  them,  excitedly  maul  over  the  goods 
on  the  counter  and  quarrel  for  the  possession  of  one 
article  which  all  want.     In  the  excitement  the  floor- 


260  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

walker  appears  and  tries  to  calm  the  women.  By  mis- 
take one  has  put  an  article  from  the  counter  into  her 
bag,  and  been  seen  by  the  house  detective.  Make  the 
dialogue  suitable,  and  have  the  action  conform.  Make 
the  play  something  more  than  child's  play;  make  it  a 
little  drama.  It  should  take  about  seven  or  eight 
minutes. 

2.  Scene — The  principal's  office  at  school. 
Characters — The    principal,    his    secretary,    another 

teacher,  and  a  pupil. 

Suggestions  for  action:  The  pupil  has  been  brought 
before  the  principal  by  the  teacher  for  a  breach  of  dis- 
cipline. The  principal  asks  the  pupil  what  defense  she 
has  to  offer.  The  teacher  gives  her  version,  which  is 
not  wholly  in  accord  with  the  pupil's  narrative,  and  the 
principal  adjusts  the  case.  The  secretary  writes  down 
all  that  is  said.  Reference  is  made,  once  or  twice,  to 
the  minutes  as  taken  down  by  the  secretary.  Time, 
about  seven  minutes. 

3.  Scene — Any  room  in  which  there  is  a  telephone. 
Character — A  boy  or  girl. 

Suggestion  for  action:  An  imaginary  conversation 
with  a  friend  upon  some  social  matter.  Make  the  one- 
sided conversation  lively.  It  should  consist  of  more 
than  monosyllables  and  should  give  ample  hints  as  to 
what  the  other  person  is  saying,  which,  of  course,  must 
be  inferred.  This  exercise  can  be  made  an  interesting 
monologue  of  five  minutes'  duration. 

4.  Scene — A  home  library. 
Characters — Two  girls. 


NARRATION  261 

Suggestions  for  action:  The  girls  are  pretending  to 
study,  for  that  has  been  their  pretended  object  in  meet- 
ing. They  try  to  study  for  a  while,  but  they  wander 
from  their  books  to  a  coming  dance,  sorority  meeting, 
or  class  picnic,  and  forget  their  books.  The  mantel 
clock  strikes  ten;  they  realize,  to  their  embarrassment, 
that  it  is  time  to  part  and  that  their  lesson  has  not  been 
learned.     Twelve  minutes. 

5.  Scene — A  doctor's  office  with  paraphernalia,  in- 
cluding X-ray  machine. 

Characters — A  doctor  and  a  man  who  is  very  nervous. 

Suggestions  for  action:  The  nervous  man  has  been 
sent  to  the  doctor  to  have  an  X-ray  photograph  taken 
of  his  jaw.  He  tells  of  his  trouble  and  what  his  dentist 
has  told  him  about  the  need  of  an  X-ray  photograph. 
He  asks  all  sorts  of  questions,  revealing  his  fear  of  the 
process,  for  he  has  heard  of  X-ray  poisoning.  The 
doctor  calms  him  and  takes  the  picture.    Ten  minutes. 

Think  up  other  scenes  and  situations  for  further 
exercises. 

Dramatizing  Poems,  Short  Stories,  and  Scenes  from 
Books.  Exercises  of  this  kind  should  be  studied  with 
greater  care,  and  the  plays  should  be  carefully  written 
out,  with  full  stage  directions.  The  suggestions  offered 
are  so  graded  as  to  give  practice  in  dealing  with  simple 
plays  with  one  situation  to  more  difficult  ones  with 
several  situations  and  some  complications. 

1.  Dramatize  Browning's  An  Incident  of  the  French  Camp. 

2.  Dramatize  Browning's  Tray,  bringing  in  all  characters.  This 
should  be  very  suggestive  and  furnish  excellent  practice. 


262  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

3.  Dramatize  Irving's  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow. 

4.  Dramatize  Irving's  Rip  Van  Winkle. 

5.  Dramatize  scenes  from  Ivanhoe,  Silas  Marner,  A  Tale  of 
Two  Cities,  David  Copperfield,  and  The  House  of  the  Seven  Gables. 
In  these  cases,  be  sure  to  select  scenes  which  offer  striking  dramatic 
situations. 

6.  Dramatize  Burns's  The  Cotter's  Saturday  Night. 

7.  Dramatize  Longfellow's  The  Courtship  of  Miles  Standish. 
This  poem  offers  unusual  opportunities  for  dramatization.  It  has 
several  good  situations. 

8.  Dramatize  the  Book  of  Ruth  or  the  Book  of  Esther  from  the 
Old  Testament. 

9.  Make  careful  selection  among  short  stories  you  have  read  for 
one  that  offers  dramatic  possibilities.     Dramatize  it. 

10.  Select  scenes  from  Pickwick  Papers  and  dramatize  them. 

Exercises  in  Planning  Pageants 

1.  Plan  a  pageant  representing  the  signing  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence  or  some  other  important  event  in  American 
history. 

2.  Plan  a  pageant  for  Decoration  Day. 

3.  Plan  a  pageant  for  Arbor  Day. 

4.  Plan  a  pageant  for  Christmas  exercises. 

5.  Plan  a  pageant  for  Class  Day. 

6.  Plan  a  pageant  representing  local  history. 

7.  Plan  a  pageant  representing  America's  allies  in  the  Great  War. 

8.  Plan  a  pageant  representing  a  scene  from  some  story. 

Description  in  Narration.  Narration,  to  be  effective, 
must  contain  some  description.  Pure  narration  may 
appeal  to  the  imagination,  but  if  some  description  is 
introduced  the  appeal  is  greatly  increased.  There  is 
also  a  psychological  reason  for  introducing  description. 
The  mind  demands  more  than  the  mere  facts  which 
tell  of  action;  it  craves  a  picture  of  the  place  where 
the  action  occurs,  of  the  actors  themselves,  and  at  least 
a  suggestion  of  a  description  concerning  all  things  men- 


NARRATION  263 

tioned  in  the  story.  Description,  especially  impres- 
sionistic description,  helps  to  create  atmosphere;  it 
adds  charm,  affords  background,  and  produces  clear- 
ness and  a  sense  of  reality.  As  all  these  things  arc 
essential  to  narration,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  informal  de- 
scription must  not  only  accompany  narration,  but  be 
woven  in  as  a  part  of  it.  Adjectives  and  most  figures 
of  speech,  especially  metaphors,  are  descriptive  in  char- 
acter. 

The  amount  of  description  that  may  be  used  with- 
out unduly  retarding  the  action  depends  upon  the 
rapidity  of  the  movement.  In  the  opening  stanzas  of 
the  Ancient  Mariner,  where  the  movement  is  rapid, 
there  is  little  description,  and  it  is  all  in  the  adjectives, 
which  are  apt  and  striking,  informal  description. 

"It  is  an  ancient  Mariner, 

And  he  stoppeth  one  of  three. 
'By  thy  long  gray  beard  and  glittering  eye, 
Now  wherefore  stopp'st  thou  me? ' " 

In  Poe's  Raven,  on  the  other  hand,  a  poem  with  slow 
movement,  we  still  find  adjectives  giving  most  of  the 
descriptive  touches,  but  they  are  very  picturesque  and 
aided  by  equally  suggestive  adverbs  and  by  metaphors. 

"Ah,  distinctly  I  remember  it  was  in  the  bleak  December, 
And  each  separate  dying  ember  wrought  its  ghost  upon  the  floor. 

"And  the  silken  sad  uncertain  rustling  of  each  purple  curtain 
Thrilled  me — filled  me  with  fantastic  terrors  never  felt  before."" 

The  best  writers  no  longer  mass  their  description,  as 
Scott  did,  for  they  know  their  story  cannot  be  much 


264  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

retarded  without  loss  of  interest.  Novels  and  short 
stories  are  now  more  like  plays,  in  that  just  enough 
description  is  introduced  to  embellish  without  imped- 
ing the  action;  enough  to  appeal  to  the  imagination  by 
suggesting  pictures  to  be  glanced  at  without  stopping 
to  study  them  in  detail.  Use  description,  then,  when  it, 
helps  the  narration,  but  never  for  its  own  sake. 

Exposition  and  Narration.  Exposition  is  introduced 
into  narration  whenever  it  is  necessary  to  explain  in- 
tricate situations,  characters,  and  such  purely  intel- 
lectual matters  as  motives,  causes,  results,  and  the  like. 
It  is  useful  whenever  the  author  desires  to  express  an 
opinion  or  judgment  concerning  his  characters  or  what 
they  are  doing.  But  this  must  be  done  sparingly. 
While  some  exposition  is  valuable,  too  much  is  fatal. 
Thackeray,  for  instance,  often  introduces  so  much  ex- 
planatory matter  that  page  after  page  of  Henry  Esmond, 
for  instance,  is  more  expository  than  narrative,  and  the 
story  as  a  story  almost  comes  to  a  complete  halt. 
Where  the  reader  can  draw  his  own  conclusions  it  is 
better  to  let  him  do  so;  he  saves  time  and  is  better 
pleased  with  the  result. 

The  following  letter  of  Carlyle  to  Lord  Houghton 
illustrates  how  expository  matter  may  be  properly  in- 
troduced into  a  letter  that  is  largely  narrative: 

"Poor  Thackeray!  I  saw  him  not  ten  days 
ago.  I  was  riding  in  the  dusk,  heavy  of  heart, 
along  by  the  Serpentine  and  Hyde  Park,  when 
some  human  brother  from  a  chariot,  with  a 
young  lady  in  it,  threw  me  a  shower  of  saluta- 


NARRATION  265 

tions.  I  looked  up;  it  was  Thackeray  with 
his  daughter,  the  last  time  I  was  to  see  him  in 
this  world.  He  had  many  fine  qualities;  no 
guile  or  malice  against  any  mortal;  a  big  mass 
of  a  soul,  but  not  strong  in  proportion;  a 
beautiful  vein  of  genius  lay  struggling  about 
in  him.  Nobody  of  our  day  wrote,  I  should 
say,  with  such  perfection  of  style.  I  predict 
of  his  books  very  much  as  you  do.  Poor 
Thackeray !    Adieu !    Adieu ! ' ' 

Argumentation  in  Narration.  In  informal  argumen- 
tation it  is  quite  common  to  find  passages  that  are 
good  narrative.  This  is  true  where  a  story,  generally 
a  very  short  one,  is  used  to  substantiate  a  point.  On 
the  other  hand,  parts  of  narratives  are  often  given  an 
argumentative  turn.  It  often  happens  that,  in  the 
course  of  a  story,  the  narrator  will  have  to  record  con- 
versation which  is  argumentative,  where  one  character 
is  trying  to  convince  another.  These  two  facts  show 
how  common  it  is  to  find  the  various  forms  of  discourse 
fused  together;  to  find  one  form  borrowing  another  to 
aid  in  accomplishing  its  purpose. 

The  commonest  combined  use  of  narration  and  argu- 
mentation is  when  a  whole  story  is  used  as  a  single 
argument,  because,  as  a  whole,  it  helps  to  convince  one 
in  favor  of  a  certain  conclusion.  For  instance,  the 
Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Animals  finds 
it  most  effective  to  use  such  stories  as  Black  Beauty  to 
enforce  the  truth  they  are  trying  to  teach.  In  such 
cases,  and  there  are  many,  the  argumentative  value  o " 
the  story  lies  in  its  teaching. 


266  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

In  a  still  more  notable  way  fables,  fairy  tales,  para- 
bles, and  allegories,  all  of  which  are  narrative  in  char- 
acter, are  used  to  convince  more  than  to  entertain,  and 
for  that  purpose  they  were  written.  Their  argumenta- 
tive value  is  evident,  though  they  may  be  far  from 
argumentative  in  form. 

When  parts  of  a  story  are  intentionally  made  to  serve 
the  purpose  of  argumentation,  such  parts  are  called 
generalized  narration  or  argumentative  narration.  For 
example,  note  the  following  argumentative  dialogue 
from  Scott's  Woodstock: 

ut  Alice,  my  dearest  child/  said  the  doctor, 
1  bethink  you  that  if  I  recommend  this  means 
of  saving  the  life  of  the  king,  at  least  rescuing 
him  from  instant  peril,  it  is  because  I  see  no 
other  of  which  to  avail  myself.  If  I  bid  you 
assume,  even  for  a  moment,  the  semblance  of 
wrong,  it  is  but  in  the  last  extremity,  and 
under  circumstances  which  cannot  return.  I 
will  take  the  surest  means  to  prevent  all  evil 
report  which  can  arise  from  what  I  recom- 
mend. ' 

"'Say  not  so,  doctor/  said  Alice;  ' better 
undertake  to  turn  back  the  Isis  than  to  stop 
the  course  of  calumny.  The  king  will  make 
boast  to  his  whole  licentious  court  of  the  ease 
with  which,  but  for  a  sudden  alarm,  he  could 
have  brought  off  Alice  Lee  as  a  paramour. 
The  mouth  which  confers  honors  on  others 
will  then  be  the  means  to  deprive  me  of  mine. 
Take  a  fitter  course — one  more  becoming  your 
own  character  and  profession.  Do  not  lead 
him  to  fail  in  an  engagement  of  honor  by  hold- 


NARRATION  267 

ing  out  the  prospect  of  another  engagement, 
equally  dishonorable,  whether  true  or  false. 
Go  to  the  king  himself;  speak  to  him  as  the 
servants  of  God  have  a  right  to  speak,  even  to 
earthly  sovereigns.  Point  out  to  him  the  folly 
and  wickedness  of  the  course  he  is  about  to 
pursue.  Urge  upon  him  that  he  fear  the 
sword,  since  wrath  bringeth  the  punishment 
of  the  sword.  Tell  him  that  the  friends  that 
died  for  him  on  the  field  of  Worcester,  on  the 
scaffolds,  and  on  the  gibbets,  since  that  bloody 
day— that  the  remnant  who  are  in  prison, 
scattered,  fled,  or  ruined  on  his  account — de- 
serve better  of  him  and  his  father's  race  than 
that  he  should  throw  away  his  life  in  an  idle 
brawl.  Tell  him  that  it  is  dishonest  to  venture 
that  which  is  not  his  own,  dishonorable  to  be- 
tray the  trust  which  brave  men  have  reposed 
in  his  virtue  and  in  his  courage.'" 

Summary  of  Narration.  Having  in  mind  what  nar- 
ration is  and  what  the  different  kinds  are,  it  will  be 
well  to  remember  the  following  brief  statements  con- 
cerning the  chief  directions  for  narrative  writing. 

Remember  to  select  a  suitable  point  of  view;  to  de- 
cide who  is  to  tell  the  story,  whether  the  chief  charac- 
ter, a  minor  character,  some  omniscient  outsider  or  a 
compiler  or  editor.  Do  not  change  the  point  of  view 
without  good  reason  and  then  let  it  be  known  that  it 
has  been  changed. 

Remember  that  almost  anything  may  be  raw  mate- 
rial for  narrative  writing,  but  that  it  must  be  most 


268  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

carefully  selected,  principally  from  observation  and  ex- 
perience and  from  the  use  of  the  imagination,  and  then 
that  it  must  be  carefully  estimated  as  to  its  value  for 
the  purpose  in  view.  Organize  the  material  by  arrang- 
ing it  according  to  a  definite  plan,  then  test  for  unity, 
coherence,  and  proportion,  and  above  all  for  interest. 
Discard  all  material  that  is  not  really  necessary  to  make 
the  narrative  interesting  and  effective. 

Remember  the  value  of  beginning  right  and  the  im- 
portance of  the  setting  and  the  four  "Ws." 

Remember  the  value  of  the  initial  situation  and  that 
it  must  lead  to  other  situations  by  the  logic  of  events. 
Heed  the  motivation  so  that  there  may  be  enough  of 
a  promise  to  arouse  the  interest. 

Remember,  concerning  Simple  Narration,  that  it 
must  be  kept  simple. 

Remember,  concerning  Plot  Narration,  that  it  is 
complicated  by  the  introduction  of  difficulties  and  ob- 
stacles to  be  removed  or  overcome,  or  by  temporarily 
entangling  the  threads  of  narration  which  are  later  to 
be  disentangled.  Remember  to  be  especially  careful 
about  the  law  of  coherence  while  handling  conflicting 
elements. 

Remember,  concerning  plot  development,  that  there 
must  be  constant  movement  toward  an  inevitable  con- 
clusion with  a  " point.' '  Keep  in  mind  the  " logic  of 
events"  and  the  law  of  cause  and  effect.  Study  care- 
fully every  step  of  development,  and  never  forget  the 
law  of  proportion. 

Remember,  that  in  narration  the  strictly  developed 


NARRATION  269 

paragraph  is  not  to  be  sought,  lest  a  mechanical  result 
should  make  the  story  too  formal.  Let  the  narrative 
paragraph  mark  convenient  stopping  and  transition 
places,  to  facilitate  the  reading  of  the  story. 

Remember  that  action  is  the  soul  of  narration,  that 
the  movement  must  be  determined  by  the  purpose  of 
the  writer  and  the  kind  of  story  he  is  telling.  Study 
methods  of  accelerating  and  of  retarding  the  action. 
Study  the  models  given  in  this  chapter,  giving  heed  to 
the  value  of  a  suitable  vocabulary  as  a  means  of  con- 
trolling speed. 

Remember  that  all  the  interest  centers  around  the 
characters  and  what  they  do  and  say.  Study  the  best 
literature  to  find  the  value  of  characters.  Study  your 
own  plan  and  create  such  characters  as  are  necessary 
to  make  the  material  of  your  story  live.  Be  careful 
about  the  way  you  introduce  and  describe  your  char- 
acters.   Cultivate  variety. 

Remember  that  if  your  characters  are  alive  they  will 
talk;  then  make  them  talk  naturally,  yet  bearing  in 
mind  the  artist's  prerogative  of  toning  down  or  toning 
up  conversation  so  as  to  avoid  giving  offense.  Con- 
dense the  speeches.  Paragraph  and  punctuate  with 
care.  Avoid  the  monotonous  repetition  of  the  word 
"said."    Select  proper  synonyms. 

Remember  to  make  the  ending  count.  Do  not  miss 
the  great  opportunity  you  have  been  seeking  all  through 
the  story.  Remove  the  obstacles;  untie  the  knots; 
release  your  reader  from  suspense;  then  stop. 

Remember  to  apply  the  fundamental  rhetorical  tests 


270  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

once  more. for  a  final  correction  and  for  elimination  of 
faults. 

Remember  that  Description,  Exposition,  and  Argu- 
mentation may  all  be  used,  sparingly,  in  narration. 
But  do  not  let  any  of  them  overweigh  the  narrative 
itself,  or  unduly  retard  the  action.  Use  them  where 
actually  necessary,  but  use  them  wisely,  never  intro- 
ducing them  for  their  own  sakes. 

Review  Questions  and  Theme  Assignments 

(The  above  reminders  of  the  fundamental  facts  of  this  chapter 
will  aid  in  the  matter  of  review.  But  teachers  will  want  to  add 
many  questions  of  their  own,  as  they  see  fit,  to  help  the  pupils 
master  narration.) 

Theme  assignments  should  be  given  to  accompany  each  section 
of  the  chapter  so  as  to  test  the  pupil's  mastery  of  the  text.  Bring 
literature  to  bear  also  by  showing  how  good  writers  have  done 
what  the  pupils  are  striving  to  master.  Study  the  use  of  material 
in  ballads,  short  poems,  and  short  stories,  that  pupils  may  learn 
how  to  condense,  to  eliminate,  to  secure  unity,  and  how  to  leave 
just  the  right  things  to  the  imagination.  Study  opening  and 
closing  situations  in  books.  Study  plot  developed  as  seen  in 
such  masters  as  Poe,  Hawthorne,  and  others. 

In  assigning  subjects,  from  which  the  pupils  may  select  their  own 
titles  after  due  study,  it  is  well  to  choose  those  upon  which  they  will 
be  able  to  gather  material  by  observation  or  out  of  their  own 
personal  experience.  Class  discussion  on  how  to  do  the  work  should 
always  precede  the  actual  work  of  writing.  Do  not  leave  the 
pupils  to  struggle  alone  until  after  some  careful  guidance.  It  will 
be  much  better  in  the  end. 

The  following  titles  are  suggested  for  assignments  for  themes 
where  the  material  is  to  be  drawn  from  observation,  from  experience, 
and  from  such  first-hand  information  as  conversation  with  people 
who  relate  old  family  traditions  and  the  like.  Care  should  be  used 
to  select  from  the  list  such  titles  as  are  within  the  range  of  pos- 
sibility when  the  age,  or  grade,  and  the  environment  of  the  pupils 
is  taken  under  consideration: 


NARRATION  271 

How  I  Earned  My  First  Dollar. 
How  I  Spent  My  First  Dollar  (of  my  own  earning). 
My  Discoveries  in  the  Attic  of  the  Old  Homestead. 
How  I  Selected  the  First  Book  I  Purchased  With  My  Own 
Money. 

Our  Canoe  Trip  down  the Creek. 

Our  Boy  Scout  Camp. 

When  the  Catboat  Capsized. 

An  Incident  of  Our  Botanizing  Excursion. 

What  Most  Impressed  Me  at  the  County  Fair. 

An  Interview  with  a  War  Veteran, 

My  First  Day  With  My  Camera. 

Hunting  With  a  Camera. 

Photographing  a  Woodchuck. 

An  Act  of  Heroism  in  Common  Life. 

My  First  Day  as  a  Reporter. 

What  I  Observed  on  a  Street  Car. 

The  Unexpected  Incident  on  the  Saturday  Hike. 

Overheard  at  the  Bargain  Counter  (Dialogue). 

Bidding  at  an  Auction. 

The  Greatest  Fright  I  ever  Had. 

The  Greatest  Surprise  of  my  Life. 

The  Proudest  Day  of  my  Life. 

My  Lucky  Day. 

A  Strange  Coincidence. 

How  I  was  Lost  and  Found  My  Way  Home. 

The  Night  of  the  Fire. 

In  assigning  the  foregoing  titles  it  will  be  profitable  to  have 
such  matters  as:  point  of  view,  opening  situation,  setting,  action, 
introduction  of  characters,  dialogue,  retarding  influences,  diction, 
climax,  and  conclusion  clearly  in  mind.  Call  attention  to  topics 
especially  suitable  for  emphasis,  or  special  treatment,  of  each  of 
the  foregoing  essentials. 

The  following  titles  will  furnish  opportunities  for  the  use  of  the 
imagination  as  the  main  source  of  material.  Emphasize  the  need 
of  using  the  imagination  sanely  and  not  running  into  fanciful 
vagaries.  Urge  the  pupils  to  start  with  facts  and,  resting  upon 
them  as  a  basis,  to  enlarge  upon  them  imaginatively: 

What  the  Old  Fireplace  Told  Me.  (Base  story  on  an  old 
tradition.) 


272  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

What  I  Would  do  if  I  Were  a  Millionaire. 

An  Imaginary  Visit  From  My  Great-great  Grandmother. 

A  Vision  of  My  Future,  as  I  Should  Like  It  to  Be. 

If  I  Were  Principal  of  Our  School. 

What  Izaak  Walton  Told  Me,  in  a  Dream. 

What  Franklin  Would  Say  if  He  Saw  an  Aeroplane. 

A  Spiritualistic  Seance. 

A  Trip  to  Utopia. 

The  Secrets  the  Mountains  Told  Me. 

The  Autobiography  of  a  Grandfather's  Clock. 

An  Imaginary  Conversation  with  Hamlet. 

An  Imaginary  Conversation  between  Sir  Walter  Scott  and 
Ivanhoe. 

An  Imaginary  Conversation  Between  Sir  John  Falstaff 
and  Touchstone. 

The  Boston  Tea  Party.  (Imagine  yourself  one  of  the 
party.) 

Hunting  with  Rip  van  Winkle. 

A  Camp-fire  Reverie. 

An  Ideal  Community. 

The  Play  at  an  Elizabethan  Theater. 

An  Evening  at  Johnson's  Club. 

The  following  titles  are  suggested  for  themes  on  material  drawn 
from  books.     This  list  may  be  enlarged  at  pleasure: 

Paul  Revere.  De  Soto. 

Evangeline.  Beowulf. 

Hiawatha.  Sir  Philip  Sidney. 

Israel  Putnam.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh. 

La  Salle.  Izaak  Walton. 

Father  Hennepin.  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson. 
Some  Characters  in  "The  Canterbury  Tales." 

Any  character  out  of  your  favorite  books,  such  as  Huckle- 
berry Finn,  John  Ridd,  Uncle  Tom,  Tom  Brown,  Judy  in 
"Daddy  Longlegs,"  etc. 

Read  Browning's  Incident  of  the  French  Camp,  Tray,  Herve  Rielr 
and  Phcidippides;  see  whet  centre!  incident  t!ie  writer  had  in  mind 


NARRATION  273 

in  each  case  and  how  he  elaborated  it.     Recall,  or  invent,  incidents 
of  your  own  and  then  elaborate  them  into  short  stories. 

Develop  short  stories  from  the  following  incidents: 

1.  Two  orphans  are  adopted  by  two  families.  The  children 
do  not  meet  for  twelve  years,  but  then  they  are  accidentally  brought 
together  and  are  struck  with  the  similarity  of  their  looks.  They 
are  then  told  that  they  are  twin  sisters.  Briefly  tell  the  story 
of  the  two  girls  for  the  next  five  years. 

2.  A  boy  goes  to  a  city  with  his  parents  and  is  lost.  He  is  not 
found  for  three  days.  During  those  days  he  has  been  cared  for 
by  a  kind-hearted  widow  who  has  lost  her  own  little  boy,  whom  she 
had  planned  to  send  to  college.  She  offers  to  send  the  boy  to 
college  if  his  parents  will  agree  to  let  him  choose  a  profession  under 
her  guidance.     Tell  the  rest  of  the  story  until  the  boy  is  twenty-one. 

3.  A  young  man  is  to  meet  a  young  lady  at  a  railroad  station  and 
endeavors  to  do  so.  Before  his  arrival,  however,  the  young  lady, 
never  having  seen  the  man  who  was  to  meet  her,  has  made  the 
mistake  of  addressing  another  young  man  who  seems  to  be  looking 
for  some  one.  Straighten  matters  out  for  the  three  by  telling 
what  happened  next. 

4.  A  young  man  has  entered  his  father's  office  as  a  junior  partner. 
He  soon  discovers  that  his  father  is  guilty  of  dishonest  business 
practices.  A  little  later  his  father  asks  him  to  do  something  which 
he  cannot  conscientiously  do.  He  is  strongly  tempted,  but  he 
resists.  Narrate,  with  dialogue,  the  scene  in  which  the  son  refuses 
to  obey  his  father  and  frankly  tells  him  why.  Bring  about  a 
satisfactory  reconciliation. 

5.  Relate  a  conversation  between  a  boy  who  has  been  justly 
accused  of  cheating  in  an  examination  and  his  teacher  who  is 
kind-hearted  but  firm  and  who  does  her  best  to  prevent  the  boy's 
cheating  again.     Make  her  very  tactful  and  patient. 

6.  A  taxi  is  sent  for  a  minister  to  perform  a  wedding  ceremony. 
The  taxi  driver  gets  the  wrong  minister,  who,  being  unknown,  is 
taken  for  a  musician.  When  the  expected  minister  does  not 
arrive  and  the  other  minister  sees  that  something  is  wrong,  he  is 
taken  home  and  the  expected  minister  is  brought  to  the  house 
and  performs  the  ceremony.  It  happens  that  the  ministers  are 
intimate  friends.  Relate  their  conversation  when  they  meet  and 
talk  it  over.     Both  have  a  sense  of  humor. 

7.  A   t'iree-year-old   child  presents   a  member  of  the  French 


274  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

Military  Band  with  a  handful  of  flowers.  The  Frenchman  takes 
the  flowers  into  the  house.  After  fifteen  minutes  he  returns  and, 
with  tears  in  his  eyes,  shows  the  child  a  photograph  of  a  woman 
and  three  small  children.     Make  a  story  out  of  these  facts. 

8.  A  company  of  American  soldiers  attended  church  at  a  French 
village.  They  knew  but  little  French.  The  priest  was  reprimand- 
ing his  people  for  overcharging  the  soldiers  and  frequently  referred 
to  six  centimes.  The  soldiers  thought  they  were  expected  to  put 
that  amount  in  the  collection  plate  and  did  so.  Develop  a  short 
story  from  the  incident. 

9.  Plan  and  write  a  wholly  original  story  with  a  complicated 
plot  and  at  least  four  necessary  characters.  Motivize  with  care. 
Use  the  element  of  suspense. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
DESCRIPTION 

Description  is  rarely  used  alone.  As  a  means  of 
enriching,  beautifying,  and  vitalizing  narration,  it  is 
commonly  employed.  Much  narration  is  but  a  series 
of  suggestive  and  informal  descriptions.  Narration 
without  any  description  is  nothing  better  than  dull  and 
dry  chronicle. 

The  chief  purpose  of  description  is  to  arouse  interest. 
Only  in  a  secondary  sense  is  interest  of  intellectual 
value;  it  is  primarily  a  matter  of  the  heart.  Conse- 
quently the  best  way  to  arouse  interest  in  a  reader  or 
listener  is  to  awaken  sympathy  between  the  speaker  or 
writer  and  those  whom  he  addresses  by  stirring  the 
emotions  and  stimulating  the  imagination.  Trench 
calls  description  "  passion  and  imagination  embodying 
themselves  in  language."  Description  accomplishes 
its  purpose  of  arousing  interest,  by  producing,  or  re- 
producing, such  images,  impressions,  and  emotions  as 
tend  to  bring  the  writer  or  speaker  and  the  reader 
or  listener  into  sympathetic  relations,  giving  them  a 
common  interest. 

We  define  description  broadly  and  comprehensively 
to  avoid  the  misleading  results  which  follow  when 
undue  emphasis  is  put  upon  that  kind  of  description 
which  is  suggested  by  pictures  at  the  expense  of  ig- 

275 


276  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

norance  of  other  and  equally  important  kinds.  De- 
scription is  that  form  of  discourse  by  means  of  which 
a  writer  or  speaker  seeks  to  produce  the  same  effects 
upon  the  senses  and  emotions  of  others,  which  ob- 
servation, experience,  and  the  use  of  the  imagination 
have  produced  upon  him, 

The  fact  that  most  of  us  use  our  eyesight  more  than 
any  other  sense  is  not  sufficient  reason  for  ignoring 
the  other  senses.  The  impressions  we  retain  of  places 
and  events  are  complex  results  of  what  we  have  seen, 
heard,  felt,  smelled,  and,  sometimes,  tasted,  together 
with  the  reaction  produced  in  us  by  these  various 
senses  as  modified  by  our  mood  at  the  time  of  receiving 
the  sensations.  Any  one  of  the  senses  may  predom- 
inate over  the  others  in  producing  an  impression 
and  some  may  have  no  influence  whatever,  but,  in 
general,  we  must  think  of  the  five  senses,  and  our  feel- 
ings or  mood,  as  the  source  of  our  impressions,  and 
look  upon  description  as  an  attempt  to  transfer  our 
impressions  to  others  sufficiently  imaginative  and 
emotional  to  react  under  such  a  stimulus. 

With  the  definition  of  description  in  mind,  study  the 
following : 

"Winter  in  New  York.  Low  leaden  clouds  beyond 
which  the  eye  cannot  trace  the  disk  of  the  sun.  Whirl- 
ing, twisting,  rebounding  winds  that  sting  the  cheek 
as  freezing  water  bites  the  hand.  The  mud  of  the 
streets  solidified  as  rock.  Roofs,  verandas,  fences,  door- 
steps; the  poles  of  the  telegraph,  the  posts  of  gas  light 
and   of   electric    light — all   ice-cased,    snow-thatched. 


DESCRIPTION  277 

Along  the  city's  great  avenue  by  night  palaces  buried 
deep  in  warmth  with  frosted  window-panes;  through 
curtains  of  damask  and  of  lace  dim  moonlight  radiance 
glimmers.  Waiting  chauffeurs  with  flapping  arms 
buried  deep  in  their  furs  like  Esquimaux.  The  wide 
river  alongside  the  city  with  rhythmic  ebb  and  flow 
between  the  sweet  tide  of  the  mountains  and  the  salt 
tide  of  the  sea  now  quieted  under  the  rigor  of  the  frost, 
each  bank  far  out  toward  midstream  covered  with  the 
fixed  ermine  and  silver  of  the  frost.  In  the  narrow 
mid-channel  the  grinding  and  crushing  of  loosened 
blocks  of  ice  by  the  careful  ferry-boats  as  they  barely 
force  their  way  to  the  gray-bearded  piers.  Out  on  the 
ocean  great  mystical  steamers  coming  into  port  as  if 
bringing  tidings  of  the  Ice  Age  of  the  earth :  their  masts 
and  decks  spectral  with  the  death  of  the  North,  their 
ice-plated  prows  tossing  aside  waters  as  white  as  breast 
feathers  of  Arctic  swans.  In  the  Park  under  a  sky 
where  the  shark-rimmed  moon  rides  full  and  thick 
stars  glisten  in  diamond  ether,  all  nature  snow-hung; 
nights  as  still,  brilliant,  dead,  as  those  of  Lapland 
wastes.     Winter  in  New  York." 

— The  Heroine  in  Bronze  (The  Macmillan  Company) : 

James  Lane  Allen 

(Note  that  in  this  excellent  description  by  a  master 
writer,  in  many  cases,  you  must  supply  the  verbs  your- 
self. This  is  quite  common  in  poetry  and  in  such  prose- 
poetry  as  this.  The  writer  simply  enumerates  what 
he  sees,  hears,  feels,  and  imagines.  And  yet  there  is 
perfect  order  in  his  enumeration.) 


278  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

What  parts  of  the  description  come  from  observa- 
tion, from  experience,  from  the  imagination? 

Notice  the  paragraph  structure. 

Point  out  what  parts  of  the  description  are  furnished 
by  the  different  senses. 

The  paragraph  following  the  one  quoted  begins, 
11  Bleaker,  darker  than  the  winter  in  the  city,  was  the 
winter  within  me."  How  far  and  in  what  way  does 
the  paragraph  on  " Winter  in  New  York"  reveal  the 
" bleaker,  darker  winter"  mood  of  the  author? 

How  far  does  the  author,  through  his  description, 
reproduce  in  you  the  mood  and  the  sensations  which 
led  him  to  write  such  a  description? 

The  Material  of  Description.  The  raw  material  of 
description  is  as  broad  as  the  world  and  as  complex  as 
life.  The  most  effective  description,  however,  is  always 
as  condensed  as  possible,  using  only  concrete  and  vivid 
material.  The  day  of  very  long  descriptions  of  single 
objects  and  events  has  passed.  Even  Sir  Walter  Scott's 
excellent  stories  are  too  much  retarded  in  action  by 
descriptions  so  long  that,  as  Robert  Louis  Stevenson 
says,  they  fail  in  their  purpose  because  the  reader  can- 
not keep  in  mind  all  the  particulars  at  the  same  time. 
L.  Lemaitre  says:  "All  description  which  exceeds 
fifteen  lines  ceases  to  be  clearly  perceptible,  even  to 
the  most  vigorous  intelligence;  beyond  that  the  reader 
has  only  a  series  of  partial  pictures  of  which  the  suc- 
cession is  fatiguing  and  boresome.  In  short,  the  whole 
picture,  or  impression,  must  be  received  at  once.  Hence 
only  concrete  and  vitally  essential  material  should  be 


DESCRIPTION  279 

used  and  only  enough  to  reproduce  or  suggest  the 
single  definite  impression  desired. " 

Local  Point  of  View  in  Description.  When  describing 
something  seen,  or  heard,  the  point  of  view  is  the  place 
from  which  it  is  seen  or  heard.  It  should  not  be 
changed  unnecessarily,  and  then  the  fact  should  be 
mentioned.  Nothing  should  be  described  as  seen  or 
heard  which  is  invisible  or  inaudible  from  the  point  of 
view,  or  otherwise  impossible  from  it. 

Mental  and  Emotional  Points  of  View.  Since  one's 
mental  and  emotional  attitudes  influence  the  treatment 
of  a  subject  as  much  as  the  physical  point  of  view,  they 
deserve  at  least  as  much  attention;  since  they  are 
harder  to  understand  and  to  control,  they  require  more 
attention. 

The  mental  point  of  view  is  determined  by  the  com- 
pleteness of  one's  knowledge  of  the  object  described. 
Incomplete  information  can,  at  best,  result  in  nothing 
better  than  vague  and  general  description;  while  com- 
plete knowledge  enables  the  writer  to  select  his  material 
with  care  and  to  use  only  such  details  as  are  vital  and 
in  harmony  with  his  artistic  purpose.  When  one  tries 
to  describe  what  he  sees  from  a  great  distance  in  semi- 
darkness,  or  from  a  rapidly  moving  train,  he  is  con- 
trolled by  an  uncertain  or  a  moving  point  of  view, 
physically,  and  by  a  mental  point  of  view  characterized 
by  incomplete  knowledge;  e.g.: 

"  Beyond  the  meadows,  ravines  sank  darkly  into 
abysses.  Beyond  the  ravines  blue,  misty  mountains, 
soared  upward  to  snow  peaks  lost  in  the  clouds." 


280  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

Note  that  here  the  mental  point  of  view  is  affected 
by  the  distance,  the  mist,  the  clouds;  but  the  descrip- 
tion is  in  keeping. 

In  describing  a  boat  at  a  great  distance,  a  scene 
vaguely  remembered,  a  night  scene  in  a  forest,  any 
scene  where  details  are  impossible,  one  must  be  careful 
to  avoid  the  error  of  violating  the  mental  point  of  view. 
It  is  generally  safer,  in  such  cases,  to  resort  to  sugges- 
tive description. 

Where  one's  knowledge  is  full  he  must  avoid  the 
tendency  to  use  too  many  details;  he  must  evaluate 
and  select  with  great  care. 

The  emotional  point  of  view  is  determined  by  one's 
feelings  or  his  mood:  his  love  or  hatred,  his  hope  or 
despair,  his  fear  or  pleasurable  anticipations,  his  joy 
or  sorrow,  his  interest  or  indifference — in  a  word,  his 
dominant  emotional  attitude.  It  is  because  people 
differ  so  much  in  their  emotional  reactions  from  things 
that  they  view  them  so  differently.  This  gives  the 
variety  which  is  the  spice  of  life.  Macbeth's  attitude 
toward  life  was  that  of  a  coward  controlled  by  fear  and 
a  guilty  conscience.  At  the  banquet  he  was  sure  he 
saw  the  ghost  of  Banquo,  where  others  saw  only  an 
empty  stool.  Lady  Macbeth  said,  "This  is  the  very 
painting  of  your  fear."  Again,  in  the  sleep-walking 
scene,  Lady  Macbeth  is  represented  as  so  dominated  by 
remorse  that,  even  in  her  sleep,  it  controlled  her.  Her 
mental  and  emotional  point  of  view  unite  in  making  her 
say :  "  Here's  the  smell  of  blood  still :  all  the  perfumes  of 
Arabia  will  not  sweeten  this  little  hand.   Oh!  Oh!  Oh!" 


DESCRIPTION  281 

Poe's  stories  illustrate  the  importance  of  the  emo- 
tional point  of  view,  as  in  the  following  paragraph  from 
The  Fall  of  the  House  of  Usher:  "To  an  anamolous 
species  of  terror  I  found  him  a  bounden  slave.  'I  shall 
perish/  said  he,  'I  must  perish  in  this  deplorable  folly. 
Thus,  thus,  and  not  otherwise,  shall  I  be  lost.  I  dread 
the  events  of  the  future,  not  in  themselves,  but  in  their 
results.  I  shudder  at  the  thought  of  any,  even  the 
most  trivial,  incident,  which  may  operate  upon  this  in- 
tolerable agitation  of  soul.  I  have,  indeed,  no  abhor- 
rence of  danger,  except  in  its  absolute  effect — in  terror. 
In  this  unnerved,  in  this  pitiable  condition,  I  feel  that 
the  period  will  sooner  or  later  arrive  when  I  must  aban- 
don life  and  reason  together,  in  some  struggle  with  the 
grim  phantasm — Fear.' " 

In  contrast  with  the  foregoing,  see  how  James  Lane 
Allen,  in  The  Heroine  in  Bronze,  makes  his  heroine 
speak  from  the  strong  emotional  point  of  view  of  love, 
and  hope,  and  interest:  "Here  (in  this  book)  is  the 
touch  upon  life,  the  handling  of  life,  the  ideals  of  life, 
that  face  toward  immortality.  .  .  .  But  though  this 
book  is  not  for  me,  it  is  the  call  of  a  great  silver  trumpet 
to  me  from  the  heights.  Your  faith  in  me  turns  my 
face  upward.  It  must  be  true  that  love  sees  best, 
truest,  most;  it  is  not  blind.  .  .  .  My  faith  in  you  now 
is  such  that  I  expect  you  to  do  more  than  succeed; 
you  will  wrest  victory  out  of  failure,  and  that  is  the 
noblest  success  a  man  can  win." 

The  football  enthusiasts,  seated  side  by  side,  and 
hence  having  the  same  physical  point  of  view  of  a 


282  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

game,  may  also  have  an  equal  knowledge  of  the  game, 
giving  them  the  same  mental  point  of  view.  But  one 
is  a  Princeton  man  and  the  other  a  Yale  man  and  the 
Orange  and  Black  is  winning.  The  emotional  point  of 
view  of  the  two  men  will  be  so  different  that  the  re- 
ports the  two  might  write  would  scarcely  be  recognized 
as  descriptions  of  the  same  game. 

The  personality  of  the  writer,  expressed  in  the 
emotional  point  of  view,  is  the  most  important  de- 
termining factor  in  description.  (Read  again  James 
Lane  Allen's  description  of  Winter  in  New  York,  page  3.) 

The  First  General  Impression.  The  first  general 
impression  of  color,  shape,  size  is  the  fundamental  con- 
ception from  which  a  description  is  developed.  It  may 
be  looked  upon  as  a  topographical  view  of  anything  as 
a  whole.  It  is  generally  stated  early  in  the  paragraph, 
as  the  topic  sentence,  and  serves  as  a  guide  in  select- 
ing material  and  in  securing  unity.  It  is  of  great 
importance. 

When  describing  anything  from  an  emotional  point 
of  view  and  when  the  description  is  to  be  brief  the  first 
general  impression  is  reserved  for  the  end  of  the 
paragraph  and  used  as  a  climax. 

In  the  following  description  of  the  effects  of  a  June 
storm,  from  Thomas  Hardy's  Return  of  the  Native, 
the  first  general  impression,  used  as  the  topic  sentence, 
is  italicized: 

"At  length  Clym  reached  the  margin  of  a  fir 
and  beech  plantation  which  had  been  inclosed 
from  heathland  in  the  year  of  his  birth.     Here 


DESCRIPTION  283 

the  trees,  laden  heavily  with  their  new  and  humid 
leaves,  were  now  suffering  more  damage  than  dur- 
ing the  highest  winds  of  winter,  when  the  boughs 
are  specially  disencumbered  to  do  battle  with 
the  storm.  The  wet  young  beeches  are  under- 
going amputations,  bruises,  cripplings,  and 
harsh  lacerations,  from  which  the  wasting  sap 
would  bleed  for  many  a  day  to  come,  and  which 
would  leave  scars  visible  till  the  day  of  their 
burning.  Each  stem  was  wrenched  at  the  root, 
where  it  moved  like  a  bone  in  its  socket,  and  at 
every  onset  of  the  gale  convulsive  sounds  came 
from  the  branches,  as  if  pain  were  felt.  In  a 
neighboring  brake  a  finch  was  trying  to  sing; 
but  the  wind  blew  under  his  feathers  till  they 
stood  on  end,  twisted  round  his  little  ail,  and 
made  him  give  up  his  song." 

In  the  following  description  of  Saul,  from  Browning's 
Saul,  note  how  the  mentioning  of  the  first  general 
impression  is  kept  in  abeyance  until  the  end: 

u  'Till  lo,  thou  art  grown  a  monarch;    a  people  is  thine; 
And  all  gifts,  which  the  world  offers  singly,  on  one  head  combine! 
On  one  head,  all  the  beauty  and  strength,  love  and  rage  (like  the 

throe 
That,  a-work  in  the  rock,  helps  its  labour  and  lets  the  gold  go), 
High  ambition  and  deeds  which  surpass  it,  fame  crowning  them, — 

all 
Brought  to  blaze  on  the  head  of  one  creature — King  Saul!" 

The  first  general  impression,  however,  is  only  a  be- 
ginning, a  suggestion  of  what  may  be  when  details  are 
added.  The  real  work  of  describing  is  the  selecting 
and  arranging  of  the  details  so  as  to  intensify  and 
illuminate  the  first  general  impression.     Only  details. 


284  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

that  are  significant,  striking,  and  characteristic  of  the 
thing  described  should  be  selected.  Too  many  details 
weaken  the  effect  of  description.  When  a  few  signifi- 
cant details  are  so  grouped  and  blended  as  to  show 
relative  values  and  produce  one  definite  effect,  the 
best  results  are  obtained. 

The  analogy  of  the  photographer  taking  pictures  is 
here  helpful.  Snapshot  pictures  are  usually  wholly 
lacking  in  artistic  effect  because  they  are  snapshots. 
The  inexperienced  amateur  takes  no  pains  to  secure 
" composition' '  in  his  pictures;  what  he  gets  is  only 
a  mass  of  details:  flat,  lifeless,  not  a  picture  at  all. 
Careless  writers  of  description  get  no  better  results. 
They  do  riot  describe. 

When  a  photographer  carefully  selects  his  point  of 
view  and  studies  his  subject,  he  can  give  prominence 
to  certain  details  and  bring  others  into  properly  sub- 
ordinated relations  with  them,  and  so  secure  artistic 
effects;  " composition,"  not  a  mere  photograph,  but  a 
picture.  In  like  manner  the  selection  of  the  best  pos- 
sible point  of  view  in  writing  description  aids  mate- 
rially in  choosing  and  in  arranging  the  details  into  an 
artistic  composition-picture,  each  detail  revealing  its 
relative  importance.  Minor  details  often  need  no  more 
than  a  slight  allusion  or  the  use  of  a  single  adjective. 

The  method  of  the  painter  is  even  more  suggestive 
than  that  of  the  photographer  as  to  the  way  to  select 
suitable  details  to  appeal  to  the  eye  and  to  stir  the 
emotions.  The  artist  first  decides  what  details  he  can 
employ  effectively,  which  are  of  major  and  which  of 


DESCRIPTION  285 

minor  importance,  and  then  how  best  to  place  them 
so  that  their  relative  values  Vill  be  readily  seen.  His 
emotional  point  of  view  will  largely  determine  how  he 
estimates  the  value  of  the  details ;  his  personality  may 
make  him  consider  some  things  of  major  importance 
which  another  would  count  of  minor  value. 

Take,  for  instance,  Munkacsy's  familiar  painting, 
Milton  Dictating  Paradise  Lost.  Milton,  being  the 
chief  character,  is  given  a  prominent  position  in  the 
foreground,  in  what  is  technically  known  as  the 
" point  of  sight,"  while  all  the  other  details  are  so 
grouped  that  the  beholder  sees  at  once  their  subordina- 
tion to  the  central  figure  and  their  relative  importance. 
The  fact  that  the  daughters  are  looking  toward  Milton, 
seated  at  the  table,  directs  the  eye  of  the  beholder  to 
the  same  central  figure.  The  first  general  impression 
that  one  gets  of  this  picture  is  of  a  man  sitting  at  a 
table;  closer  examination  reveals,  first  the  major  de- 
tails— the  daughters — and  then  the  minor  details — the 
furniture  and  general  appearance  of  the  room. 

In  describing  a  country  house  which  one  sees  as  he 
passes  along  a  highway,  for  instance,  the  writer  gets  the 
first  general  impression  when  he  sees  the  house  from  the 
distance.  He  notices  its  color — white  with  green  shut- 
ters; its  general  shape,  square;  and  the  trees  surround- 
ing it.  This  first  general  impression  is  pleasing,  and  in- 
vites a  more  careful  scrutiny  when  approached. 

Upon  closer  examination,  when  the  writer  has  paused 
directly  in  front  of  the  house,  the  details  come  into 
prominence.    The  house  itself  is  still  the  point  of  sight, 


286  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

the  most  important  detail,  but  other  details  are  now 
noticed  which  are  so  related  to  the  chief  one  that  the 
whole  view  assumes  a  new  and  greater  interest.  The 
color  is  still  seen  to  be  white,  but  it  is  not  a  good  white. 
It  is  weather  worn.  The  paint  is  peeling  off.  The  shut- 
ters are  of  a  soiled  greenish  color,  and  some  are  hanging 
by  one  hinge.  Others  have  fallen  to  the  ground.  The 
shape  of  the  house  is  square,  but  now  two  bay  windows 
are  noticed  and  a  small  one-story  wing  is  perceived. 
The  character  of  the  porch  reveals  the  style  of  archi- 
tecture to  be  of  a  modified  colonial  type.  The  win- 
dows, upon  careful  examination,  are  seen  to  be  of  small 
oblong  panes  of  glass,  some  broken,  and  others  covered 
with  cobwebs.  The  trees  are  now  recognized  as  maples 
and  pines  in  front  of  the  house,  with  a  few  cherry  trees 
at  one  side.  The  lawn  is  unkempt,  the  flower  beds  are 
full  of  weeds,  while  the  walks  are  partly  grown  over 
with  grass.  The  fences  are  leaning  and  the  gate  is 
missing.  On  one  of  the  gate  posts  is  a  weather- 
beaten  sign  bearing  the  scarcely  perceptible  words 
"For  Sale." 

Such  are  the  details  which  one  would  observe  when 
stopping  and  carefully  examining  the  above-mentioned 
country  house.  But  while  a  careless  writer  might  try 
to  make  such  a  mere  catalogue  of  details  pass  as  a  de- 
scription, it  is  not  a  description.  It  is  only  an  inven- 
tory, furnishing  raw  material. 

A  description  made  of  the  above  details  would  natu- 
rally be  used  to  embellish  a  narrative  of  a  country 
drive,  as  follows: 


DESCRIPTION  287 

"As  we  drove  leisurely  along  a  little  used  and  some- 
what rutty  road,  our  attention  was  attracted  by  a  large, 
white  house,  with  green  shutters,  partly  shut  off  from 
view  by  trees.  As  we  came  in  front  we  paused  for  a 
more  careful  look,  for  to  tell  the  truth  we  were  house- 
hunting. And  this  is  what  we  saw:  A  relic  of  former 
splendor.  The  house  was  white,  or  had  been  years 
before,  but  now  should  be  called  whitish;  the  shutters 
had  doubtless  been  green,  but  at  close  range  they  were 
seen  to  be  only  grayish-black,  with  a  mere  suggestion 
of  fading  green.  This  house  must  have  been  an  im- 
posing structure  half  a  century  ago.  An  architect,  and 
no  mere  carpenter,  must  have  planned  it,  with  its  fair 
proportions,  its  attractive  bay  windows,  colonial  porch, 
and  that  wing,  on  the  left,  in  perfect  harmony  with  the 
main  building.  But  time  and  the  elements  have,  evi- 
dently, been  left  in  absolute  control.  And  they  have 
done  their  work.  The  porch  roof  has  sagged  at  least  a 
foot  at  the  right  end;  the  intermittent  battering  of  the 
winds,  aided  perhaps  by  a  crumbling  foundation,  has 
thrown  the  main  building  out  of  plumb ;  many  window- 
panes  are  gone,  and  others  are  darkened  by  an  accumu- 
lation of  cobwebs.  The  once  stately  trees  are  dying 
for  want  of  care,  and  broken  limbs  disfigure  them.  The 
unkempt  lawn,  the  flower  beds  now  overgrown  with 
weeds,  and  even  the  paths  upon  which  the  grass  and 
weeds  are  encroaching,  unite  to  tell  the  story  of  the 
desolation  which  follows  in  the  train  of  man's  neglect. 
The  leaning  fences,  and  the  absence  of  the  front  gate, 
prejudice  one  against  this  place  in  its  present  condition. 


288  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

The  "  For  Sale  "  sign  is  so  dilapidated  that  it  not  only 
fails  to  incite  to  buying,  but  effectively  warns  against 
such  folly.  A  relic  of  bygone  splendor  may  bring  up 
pictures  of  the  past,  but  we  were  seeking  a  home  for 
present  comfort.  So  we  drove  on,  still  house  hunting." 
The  above  description  is  fairly  typical,  and  may 
serve  as  an  example  of  certain  facts  about  description, 
to  be  kept  in  mind. 

1.  There  is  a  natural  order  in  which  to  deal  with 
details.  The  first  is  color,  then  comes  shape  or  form, 
and  then,  as  one  goes  on  further  with  his  observation 
and  analysis,  individual  details  stand  out  with  a  new 
prominence  and  yet  are  seen  in  relation  to  the  whole 
of  which  they  are  but  minor  parts. 

2.  The  way  to  give  the  right  value  to  minor  details 
is  to  place  them  in  the  less  emphatic  parts  of  the  para- 
graph and  to  use  fewer  words  in  describing  them.  The 
less  important  of  the  minor  details  are  best  given  their 
relative  values  by  single  modifying  words,  such  as 
" unkempt"  and  "dilapidated,"  in  the  above  detailed 
description. 

3.  Even  a  detailed  description,  like  the  one  given 
above,  generally  makes  an  appeal  to  the  emotions  as 
well  as  to  the  senses,  and  so  either  creates,  or  accen- 
tuates, an  emotional  point  of  view,  which  in  turn  affects 
the  description  and  tends  to  make  it  impressionistic  in 
character.  The  very  atmosphere  of  desolation  and 
decay  in  the  "relic  of  former  splendor,"  unconsciously 
moves  the  beholder  and  colors  his  description  ac- 
cordingly. 


DESCRIPTION  289 

(Read  some  work  abounding  in  good  description  and  take  note 
of  the  author's  handling  of  details  both  as  to  selection  and  grouping 
according  to  relative  value  and  importance  in  the  description. 
Then  practice  constantly  in  your  own  writing  until  you  can  deal 
with  the  matter  of  details  in  a  satisfactory  manner.  Remember 
that  you  are  to  enable  another  to  perceive  and  feel  what  you  do; 
emphasize  these  things  and  not  the  intellectual  appeal  in  description.) 

Exact  and  Artistic  Description.  There  are  two  gen- 
eral classes  of  description :  exact  and  artistic.  Exact  or 
technical  description  is  so  closely  akin  to  exposition  that 
it  is  not  necessary  to  examine  it  here.  It  is  such  as  is 
used  in  guidebooks  designed  to  give  information  as  to 
what  may  be  seen,  rather  than  to  call  up  images  in  the 
mind  of  the  reader. 

It  is  important  to  understand  such  description  in 
order  to  avoid  it,  and  to  cease  confusing  it  with  real, 
artistic  description. 

Artistic  or  Literary  Description.  The  aim  of  artistic 
or  literary  description  is  to  interest  and  to  please,  and 
only  incidentally  to  give  information.  In  selecting 
material  for  artistic  description  one  must  seek  only  that 
which  is  sufficiently  characteristic  to  insure  its  adding 
interest  to  the  whole  description.  The  art  comes  in  in 
the  grouping  of  the  interesting  material  so  as  to  please 
the  reader.  To  do  this  requires  skill  and  much  practice. 
Avoid  dull  inventories  of  all  sorts  of  details;  compose 
your  picture  by  picturesque  arrangement. 

Kinds  of  Literary  Description.  For  the  sake  of  clear- 
ness, literary  description  is  further  analyzed  and  sub- 
divided into  three  kinds:  detailed,  impressionistic,  and 
suggestive  or  informal. 


290  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

Detailed  Description.  Detailed  description,  as  its 
name  suggests,  is  complete,  using  many  details.  One 
tells  all  he  sees  of  a  room  and  its  furnishings,  a  street 
scene,  a  landscape.  His  purpose  is  more  like  that  of 
the  photographer  than  the  artist.  And  the  result  is  in 
keeping  with  the  purpose.  The  descriptions  on  pages 
282  and  287  are  of  this  class.  Consult  them,  and  the 
comments  about  them,  for  further  information  about 
detailed  description.  Review  also  what  was  said  about 
the  first  general  impression  and  about  major  and  minor 
details. 

Note  also  the  following  detailed  description: 

"The  inside  of  the  hut,  as  it  now  presented  itself,  was 
cozy  and  alluring,  and  the  scarlet  handful  of  fire,  in 
addition  to  the  candle,  reflecting  its  own  genial  color 
upon  whatever  it  could  reach,  flung  associations  of  en- 
joyment even  over  utensils  and  tools.  In  the  corner 
stood  the  sheep-crook,  and  along  a  shelf  at  one  side 
were  ranged  bottles  and  cannisters  of  the  simple  prepa- 
rations pertaining  to  ovine  surgery  and  physic:  spirits 
of  wine,  turpentine,  tar,  magnesia,  ginger,  and  castor 
oil  being  the  chief.  On  a  triangular  shelf  across  the 
corner  stood  bread,  bacon,  cheese,  and  a  cup  of  ale  or 
cider,  which  was  supplied  from  a  flagon  underneath. 
Beside  the  provisions  lay  the  flute,  whose  notes  had 
lately  been  called  forth  by  the  lonely  watcher  to  beguile 
a  tedious  hour.  The  house  was  ventilated  by  two  round 
holes,  like  the  lights  of  a  cabin,  with  two  slides. " 

—Far  from  the  Madding  Crowd:   Thomas  Hardy 

Comment  upon  the  localizing  of  details. 


DESCRIPTION  291 

Can  you  visualize  the  scene? 

"It  was,  indeed,  some  time  before  Lovell 
could,  through  the  thick  atmosphere,  perceive 
in  what  sort  of  den  his  friend  had  constructed 
his  retreat.  It  was  a  lofty  room  of  middling 
size,  obscurely  lighted  by  high,  narrow,  latticed 
windows.  One  end  was  entirely  occupied 
by  bookshelves,  greatly  too  limited  in  space  for 
the  number  of  volumes  placed  upon  them, 
which  were,  therefore,  drawn  up  in  ranks  of 
two  or  three  files  deep,  while  numberless 
others  littered  the  floor  and  tables,  amid  a 
chaos  of  maps,  engravings,  scraps  of  parch- 
ment, bundles  of  papers,  pieces  of  old  armor, 
swords,  dirks,  helmets,  and  Highland  tar- 
gets. Behind  Mr.  Oldbuck's  seat  (which 
was  an  ancient  leather-covered  easy-chair, 
worn  smooth  by  constant  use)  was  a  large 
oaken  cabinet,  decorated  at  each  corner  with 
Dutch  cherubs,  having  their  little  duck-wings 
displayed  and  great  jolter-headed  visages 
placed  between  them.  The  top  of  this  cabinet 
was  covered  with  busts  and  Roman  lamps 
and  paterse,  intermingled  with  one  or  two 
bronze  figures.  The  walls  of  the  apartment 
were  partly  clothed  with  grim  old  tapestry, 
representing  the  memorable  story  of  Sir 
Gawaine's  wedding,  in  which  full  justice  was 
done  to  the  ugliness  of  the  Lothely  Lady;  al- 
though, to  judge  from  his  own  looks,  the 
gentle  knight  had  less  reason  to  be  disgusted 
with  the  match  on  account  of  disparity  of  out- 
ward favor  than  the  romancer  has  given  us  to 
understand.     The    rest    of    the    room    was 


292  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

panelled  or  wainscotted  with  black  oak,against 
which  hung  two  or  three  portraits  in  armor, 
being  characters  in  Scottish  history,  favorites 
of  Mr.  Oldbuck,  and  as  many  in  tie-wigs  and 
laced  coats,  staring  representatives  of  his  .own 
ancestors.  A  large  old-fashioned  oak  table 
was  covered  with  a  profusion  of  papers,  parch- 
ments, books,  and  nondescript  trinkets  and 
gewgaws,  which  seemed  to  have  little  to 
recommend  them  besides  rust  and  the  an- 
tiquity which  it  indicates.  In  the  midst  of 
this  wreck  of  ancient  books  and  utensils, 
with  a  gravity  equal  to  Marius  among  the  ruins 
of  Carthage,  sat  a  large  black  cat,  which  to  a 
superstitious  eye  might  have  represented 
the  genius  loci,  the  tutelar  demon  of  the  apart- 
ment. The  floor,  as  well  as  the  table  and 
chairs,  was  overflowed  by  the  same  mare 
magnum  of  miscellaneous  trumpery,  where 
it  would  have  been  as  impossible  to  find  any 
individual  article  wanted  as  to  put  it  to  any 
use  when  disco vered." 

— The  Antiquary:  Sir  Walter  Scott 

Analyze  the  description. 

Point  out  the  first  general  impression,  the  major 
and  the  minor  details. 

Impressionistic  Description.  Impressionistic  de- 
scription seeks  to  produce,  with  as  few  words  as  pos- 
sible, some  one  definite  emotional  effect.  This  is  ac- 
complished by  selecting  a  few  details  which  may  be 
classed  as  causes  of  the  desired  effect  and  by  so  handling 
them  as  to  direct  the  attention  of  the  reader  emphatic- 
ally and  repeatedly  toward  that  effect.     Impressionis- 


DESCRIPTION  293 

tic  description  appeals  far  more  to  the  feelings  than 
to  the  senses.  It  may  reach  the  feelings  through  the 
senses.  It  may  be  a  by-product  of  detailed  descrip- 
tion, as  in  the  case  of  the  " Relic  of  Bygone  Splendor" 
and  " Winter  in  New  York."  It  may  even  appear 
along  with  a  piece  of  narrative  where  a  series  of  effects 
of  some  one  cause  are  strikingly  given,  as  in  the  first 
stanza  of  Keats'  Eve  of  St.  Agnes,  which  we  give  again: 

"St.  Agnes'  eve — Ah,  bitter  chill  it  was! 

The  owl,  for  all  his  feathers,  was  a-cold; 
The  hare  limp'd  trembling  through  the  frozen  grass, 

And  silent  was  the  flock  in  woolly  fold: 
.    Numb  were  the  Beadsman's  fingers,  while  he  told 
His  rosary,  and  while  his  frosted  breath, 

Like  pious  incense  from  a  censer  old, 
Seem'd  taking  flight  for  heaven,  without  a  death, 
Past  the  sweet  Virgin's  picture,  while  his  prayer  he  saith." 

Impressionistic  description  is  the  most  effective 
means  of  arousing  definite  and  strong  emotion.  Take 
Keats'  La  Belle  Dame  sans  Merci,  for  instance.  Note 
how  he  pictures  in  a  very  few  words  the  utmost  desola- 
tion and  despair. 

"Ah,  what  can  ail  thee,  wretched  wight, 
Alone  and  palely  loitering; 
The  sedge  is  withered  from  the  lake, 
And  no  birds  sing. 

"Ah,  what  can  ail  thee,  wretched  wight, 
So  haggard  and  so  woe-begone? 
The  squirrel's  granary  is  full, 
And  the  harvest's  done. 

"I  see  a  lily  on  thy  brow, 

With  anguish  moist  and  fever  dew; 
And  on  thy  cheek  a  fading  rose 
Fast  withereth,  too." 


294  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

In  a  similar  way  Poe  describes  the  ruins  of  the 
Coliseum  by  reiterating  a  few  details  so  vividly  as  to 
produce  one  definite  and  striking  effect — of  ruin,  and 
our  consequent  harmonious  emotions.  We  quote  the 
fourth  stanza : 

"But  stay!  these  walls — these  ivy-clad  arcades — 
These  mouldering  plinths — these  sad  and  blackened  shafts — 
These  vague  entablatures — this  crumbling  frieze — 
These  shattered  cornices — this — wreck — this  ruin — 
These  stones — alas!    these  gray  stones — are  they  all — 
All  of  the  famed  and  the  colossal  left 
By  the  corrosive  hours  to  Fate  and  me?" 

This  kind  of  description  is  the  only  effective  means 
of  creating  the  atmosphere  appropriate  for  the  motif 
of  a  story,  play,  or  poem.  So  Shakespeare  strikes  the 
keynote  of  Macbeth  by  having  the  play  open  with  the 
weird  sisters  crooning  their  doggerel,  thereby  indicating 
that  the  play  is  to  deal  with  the  powers  of  the  nether 
world.  Poe  was  a  master  of  this  kind  of  description, 
using  it  in  most  of  his  stories  and  in  many  of  his  poems. 
In  The  Raven  we  find  a  capital  illustration  of  his 
ability  to  create  the  atmosphere  without  which  one 
would  fail  to  feel  the  alluring  charm  of  the  poem. 
Notice  how  the  midnight  hour,  his  weariness,  the  time 
of  the  year,  the  dying  embers,  and  the  rustling  of  the 
silken  curtains,  all  combined  to  itensify  the  domi- 
nant idea  of  the  poem  expressed  in  the  raven's  croak, 
"  Nevermore." 
"Once  upon  a  midnight  dreary,  while  I  pondered,  weak  and  weary, 

Ah,  distinctly  I  remember,  it  was  in  the  bleak  December; 
And  each  separate  dying  ember  wrought  its  ghost  upon  the  floor." 


DESCRIPTION  295 

In  a  similar  way  Poe  created  the  atmosphere  of  the 
poem  Ulalume  in  the  first  stanza: 

"The  skies  they  were  ashen  and  sober; 

The  leaves  they  were  crisped  and  sere — 

The  leaves  they  were  withering  and  sere; 
It  was  night  in  the  lonesome  October 

Of  my  most  immemorial  year; 
It  was  hard  by  the  dim  lake  of  Auber, 

In  the  misty  mid  region  of  Weir — 
It  was  down  by  the  dank  tarn  of  Auber, 

In  the  ghoul-haunted  woodland  of  Weir." 

We  have  illustrated  from  poetry  because  of  the 
brevity  of  the  passages,  but  the  same  kind  of  descrip- 
tion is  as  commonly  used  in  the  best  prose  stories  of  the 
day.  Consult  Poe's  Fall  of  the  House  of  Usher.  Find 
other  examples  for  yourself  for  further  practice. 

Impressionistic  description  is  analogous  to  impres- 
sionistic painting  in  which  some  one  major  detail  gives 
the  whole  point  of  the  picture  at  a  single  glance,  while' 
the  few  other  details  are  so  barely  sketched  as  to  be 
scarcely  perceptible.  Millet's  Angelas  is  an  example. 
The  two  figures  are  placed  prominently  in  the  fore- 
ground; the  field  is  rudely  sketched.  The  only  other 
detail  of  note  is  the  belfry  in  the  background,  whence, 
we  infer,  the  peasants  have  heard  the  call  to  prayer 
and  have  paused  to  respond.  The  attitude  of  the  two 
and  the  distant  belfry  tell  the  whole  story  and  create 
a  feeling  of  devotion  in  the  beholder. 

Should  one  attempt  to  describe  the  same  scene 
impressionistically  he  would  follow  a  method  closely 
analogous  to  that  of  the  painter.    With  the  one  definite 


296  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

aim  of  arousing  feelings  of  devotion,  he  would  describe 
the  peasants,  pausing  from  their  work  and  bowing 
reverently  in  prayer,  tell  of  the  bell  tilted  from  the 
perpendicular  to  indicate  its  ringing,  and  only  suggest 
the  few  remaining  details.  By  a  few  appropriate  and 
striking  words  the  desired  emotional  effect  might  be 
even  more  emphasized. 

Suggestive  or  Informal  Description.  Closely  allied  to 
impressionistic  description,  and  yet  clearly  differen- 
tiated from  it,  is  the  suggestive  or  informal  type.  It 
resembles  the  impressionistic  kind  in  being  brief  and 
in  having  a  definite  aim;  it  differs  in  that  it  suggests,  by 
means  of  a  very  few  details,  an  image,  or  sensation,  or 
emotion,  to  be  elaborated  by  the  imagination  of  the 
reader.  The  success  or  failure  of  this  kind  of  descrip- 
tion depends  almost  entirely  upon  the  activity  of  the 
reader's  imagination.  For  all  who  have  enough  imag- 
ination to  take  a  suggestion,  for  all  who  can  "read 
between  the  lines/ '  and  for  all  who  resent  the  use  of 
long  detailed  descriptions,  this  suggestive  or  informal 
kind  comes  as  a  most  welcome  relief  and  genuine 
satisfaction.  It  possesses  the  further  advantage  of 
fostering  close  sympathetic  relations  between  the 
writer  and  the  reader  who  is  always  pleased  that  a 
writer  trusts  him  to  fill  in  his  own  details.  The  use  of 
picturesque  words,  which  suggest  more  than  they  tell, 
increases  the  effectiveness  of  such  description.  A 
single  word  of  large  connotation  often  suffices. 

This  kind  of  description  is  also  called  "informal" 
because   it   is   frequently   used   in   narration   and   in 


DESCRIPTION  -297 

exposition  where  the  descriptive  purpose  is  only  inci- 
dental to  that  of  telling  a  story  or  of  explaining  some- 
thing. Inasmuch  as  this  kind  of  description  enables 
one  to  bring  into  his  writing  all  necessary  descriptive 
elements  without  pausing  or  turning  aside  for  formal 
description  which  calls  attention  to  itself  by  its  very 
formality,  its  value  is  most  evident. 

In  studying  the  following  examples  of  suggestive  and 
informal  description,  note  how  the  writers  have  suc- 
ceeded in  making  us  see  and  feel,  without  pausing  in 
this  narrative,  what  they  have  experienced.  For  the 
sake  of  indicating  the  words,  which  suggest  descriptive 
elements,  they  are  italicized. 

The  first  is  from  Kipling's  The  Undertaker '«  House: 

"Neither  skj^js  he  nor  is  restive, 
But  a  hideously  suggestive 

Trot,  professional  and  placid,  he  affects; 
And  the  cadence  of  his  hoof-beats — 
To  my  mind,  this  grim  reproof  beats: — 
'Mind  your  pace,  my  friend,  I'm  coming. 
Who's  the  next?'" 

This  is  from  Kipling's  Pagett,  M.P. : 

"April  began  with  the  punkah,  coolies,  and  prickly-heat, — 
Pagett  was  dear  to  mosquitos,  sandflies  found  him  a  treat. 
He  grew  speckled  and  lumpy — hammered,  I  grieve  to  say, 
Aryan  brothers  who  fanned  him,  in  an  illiberal  way." 

The  next  two  quotations  are  from  Browning's  Saul: 

"At  the  first  I  saw  naught  but  the  blackness;  but  soon  I  descried 
A  something  more  black  than  the  blackness — the  vast,  the  upright 
Main  prop  which  sustains  the  pavilion:    and  slow  into  sight 
Grew  sl  figure  against  it,  gigantic  and  blackest  of  all. 
Then  a  sunbeam,  that  burst  thro'  the  tent-roof,  showed  Saul." 


298"  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

"Anon  at  the  dawn,  all  that  trouble  had  withered  from  earth — 
Not  so  much,  but  I  saw  it  die  out  in  the  day's  tender  birth; 
In  the  gathered  intensity  brought  to  the  gray  of  the  hills; 
In  the  shuddering  forests'  held  breath;  in  the  sudden  wind  thrills; 
In  the  startled  wild  beasts  that  bore  off,  each  with  eye  sidling  still 
Tho'  averted  with  wonder  and  dread;   in  the  birds  stiff  and  chill 
That  rose  heavily,  as  I  approached  them,  made  stupid  with  awe: 
E'en  the  serpent  that  slid  away  silent, — he  felt  the  new  law. 
The  same  stared  in  the  white  humid  faces  upturned  by  the  flowers; 
The  same  worked  in  the  heart  of  the  cedar  and  moved  the  vine- 
bowers: 
And  the  little  brooks  witnessing  murmured,  persistent  and  low, 
With  their  obstinate,  all  but  hushed  voices — 'E'en  so,  it  is  so." 


"Two  frowning  boys  sat  in  their  tennis  flan- 
nels beneath  the  glare  of  lamp  and  gas.  Their 
leather  belts  were  loosened,  their  soft  pink  shirts 
unbuttoned  at  the  collar.  They  were  listening 
with  gloomy  voracity  to  the  instruction  of  a 
third.  They  sat  at  a  table  bared  of  its  cus- 
tomary sporting  ornaments,  and  from  time 
to  time  they  questioned,  sucked  their  pencils, 
and  scrawled  vigorous,  laconic  notes.  Their 
necks  and  faces  shone  with  the  bloom  of  out- 
of-doors.  Studious  concentration  was  evi- 
dently a  painful  novelty  to  their  features. 
Drops  of  perspiration  came  one  by  one  from 
their  matted  hair,  and  their  hands  dampened 
the  paper  upon  which  they  wrote.  The  win- 
dows stood  open  wide  to  the  May  darkness,  but 
nothing  came  in  save  heat  and  insects;  for 
spring,  being  behind  time,  was  making  up 
with  a  sultry  burst  at  the  end,  as  a  delayed 
train  makes  the  last  few  miles  high  above 
schedule  speed.  Thus  it  had  been  since  eight 
o'clock.  Eleven  was  daintily  striking  now. 
Its  diminutive  sonority  might  have  belonged 


DESCRIPTION  299 

to  some  church  bell  far  distant  across  the 
Cambridge  silence;  but  it  was  on  a  shelf  in 
the  room, — a  timepiece  of  Gallic  design,  repre- 
senting Mephistopheles,  who  caressed  the  world 
in  his  lap.  And  as  the  little  strokes  boomed, 
eight — nine — ten — eleven,  the  voice  of  the 
instructor  steadily  continued  " : 
— Philosophy  Four  (The  Macmillan  Company) :  Owen  Wister 

The  simple  narrative  just  quoted  tells  where  the  two 
boys  were  and  what  they  were  doing;  but  it  does 
much  more.  Without  perceptibly  halting  the  narrative 
the  author  informally  describes  the  boys,  their  sur- 
roundings and  their  mood. 

Some  readers,  in  their  hast  3  to  reach  the  end  of  a 
story,  skip  the  long  formal  descriptions;  but  none  can 
skip  informal  description  which  is  intricately  woven 
into  the  meshes  of  other  forms  of  composition.  In- 
formal description  is  also  more  natural  than  the  formal 
kind.  In  conversation  we  narrate  and  describe,  or 
explain  and  describe,  at  the  same  time.  Three  fourths 
of  all  description  now  written  is  informal.  Do  not  be 
discouraged,  then,  if,  upon  looking  through  many 
pages  for  isolated  passages  of  description,  you  find  but 
few.  Since  the  best  writers  have  come  to  use  more 
informal  description  than  formal,  we  cannot  go  wrong 
if  we  follow  their  example.  Nor  do  we  lose  in  effective- 
ness. Informal  description  does  describe.  Use  it  when 
it  is  sufficient;  in  the  few  cases  when  it  seems  to  fall 
short,  you  may  always  resort  to  the  more  detailed  kind. 

In  the  following  dialogue  between  Mr.  Murdstone, 


300  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

David,  and  Miss  Murdstone  note  how  much  description 
of  an  informal  nature  is  evident. 

"My  mother's  lips  moved,  as  if  she  an- 
swered, 'Yes,  my  dear  Edward,'  but  she  said 
nothing  aloud. 

"'I  was  sorry,  David,  I  remarked,'  said  Mr. 
Murdstone,  turning  his  head  and  his  eyes 
stiffly  toward  me,  'to  observe  that  you  are  of 
a  sullen  disposition.  This  is  not  a  character 
that  I  can  suffer  to  develop  beneath  my  eyes 
without  an  effort  at  improvement.  You  must 
endeavor,  sir,  to  change  it.  We  must  en- 
deavor to  change  it  for  you.' 

" '  I  beg  your  pardon,  sir , '  I  faltered.  1 1  have 
never  meant  to  be  sullen  since  I  came  back.' 

" i  Don't  take  refuge  in  a  he,  sir ! '  he  returned 
so  fiercely  that  I  saw  my  mother  involuntarily 
put  out  her  hand  as  if  to  interpose  between  us. 
'You  have  withdrawn  yourself  in  your  sullen- 
ness  to  your  own  room.  You  have  kept  your 
own  room  when  you  ought  to  have  been  here. 
You  now  know,  once  for  all,  that  I  require  you 
to  be  here  and  not  there.  Further,  that  I  re- 
quire you  to  bring  obedience  here.  You  know 
me,  David.    I  will  have  it  done.' 

"Miss  Murdstone  gave  a  hoarse  chuckle." 

— David  Copper field:    Charles  Dickens 

Thomas  Hardy's  description  of  the  execution  of  Tess 
of  the  D'Urbervilles  is  wholly  devoid  of  details,  such  as 
a  yellow  journalist  would  have  reveled  in.  After  re- 
lating how  Angel  Clare  and  Tess's  sister  approached 
the  prison,  half  hidden  by  the  yews  and  the  oaks,  and 


DESCRIPTION  301 

then  watched  the  building,  Mr.  Hardy  tells  the  whole 
of  the  end  of  the  story  in  the  following  short  paragraph. 
But  how  full  of  unspeakable  suggestion! 

"Upon  the  cornice  of  the  tower  a  small  staff  was 
fixed.  Their  eyes  were  riveted  upon  it.  A  few  minutes 
after  the  hour  had  struck  something  moved  slowly  up 
the  staff,  and  extended  itself  upon  the  breeze.  It  was  a 
black  flag."  Then  the  following  few  words  reveal  the 
effect:  "The  two  speechless  gazers  bent  themselves 
down  to  the  earth,  as  if  in  prayer,  and  remained  thus  a 
long  time,  absolutely  mitionless;  the  flag  continued  to 
wave  silently.  As  soon  as  they  had  strength  they  arose, 
joined  hands  again,  and  went  on." 

Mr.  Hardy's  masterful  touch  is  evident;  suggestive 
description  full  of  connotation. 

What  to  Describe.  What  shall  we  describe?  The 
answer  will  depend  upon  our  purpose  in  writing,  our 
mental  and  emotional  points  of  view,  and  upon  the 
amount  of  available  material.  Furthermore,  it  must 
be  remembered  that  no  description  should  be  used  for 
its  own  sake,  that  it  should  never  be  used  except  when 
it  actually  adds  interest.  One  should  ask  himself  how 
much  description  can  be  used  effectively,  always  taking 
care  to  be  economical  rather  than  prodigal  as  to  the 
amount. 

Having  decided  how  much  description  to  use,  it  is 
still  necessary  to  determine  which  kind  will  best  serve 
one's  purpose:  detailed,  impressionistic,  or  suggestive 
or  informal.  Generally  speaking,  inasmuch  as  it  has 
a  tendency  to  attract  attention  to  itself,  detailed  de- 


302  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

scription  should  be  sparingly  used.  A  safe  rule  to  fol- 
low is :  Never  describe  in  detail  except  when  absolutely 
necessary;  describe  impressionistically  whenever  the 
aim  is  emotional  or  when  the  emotional  point  of  view 
is  to  be  emphasized;  and  describe  suggestively  or  in- 
formally whenever  the  demand  for  brevity  is  great  and 
when  the  occasion  seems  suitable  to  leave  much  to  the 
imagination  of  the  reader. 

In  actual  practice  you  will  soon  gain  such  proficiency 
that  you  can  easily  and  simultaneously  decide  what  to 
describe,  how  much  to  describe,  and  what  form  to  use. 

For  class  practice,  and  for  that  only,  it  is  sometimes 
necessary  to  choose  independent  subjects,  subjects  not 
related  to  a  story  or  other  form  of  discourse.  Land- 
scapes, buildings,  domestic  scenes,  street  scenes,  games, 
animals,  and  people  in  all  sorts  of  activities,  furnish 
abundant  material.  In  such  cases  of  independent  de- 
scription the  detailed  kind  will  often  assume  more 
importance,  relative  to  the  other  kinds,  than  in  the 
common  and  most  natural  use  of  description  as  a  means 
of  enriching  narration  where  the  nature  of  the  plot  or 
of  the  characters  will  often  furnish  emotional  points  of 
view  demanding  other  material  than  mere  details. 

Unity  in  Description.  The  principle  of  unity  demands 
more  attention  in  description  than  in  any  other  form  of 
discourse.  Since  description  must  give  one  unified  im- 
pression, unity  becomes  its  very  basic  principle.  In 
selecting  details  then,  the  writer  must  choose  those, 
and  only  those,  which  are  essential  for  calling  up  the 
desired  image  in  the  imagination  of  the  reader,  or  the 


DESCRIPTION  303 

desired  emotion  in  the  heart  of  the  reader.  The  pur- 
po3e  of  description  being  to  produce  the  one  definite 
impression,  and  the  law  of  unity  being  the  obvious 
means  of  attaining  that  aim,  there  is  no  excuse  for  the 
one  who  violates  the  law.  In  fact,  no  careful  writer 
who  knows  the  law  and  what  his  aim  is,  can  violate  it. 
And,  moreover,  if  he  is  careful  concerning  the  point  of 
view  as  well  as  of  the  law  of  unity,  he  will  have  little 
difficulty  in  selecting  the  characteristic  and  essential 
details. 

The  Grouping  of  Details — Coherence.  The  arrange- 
ment or  grouping  of  the  essential  details  which  have 
been  selected,  is  determined,  in  the  case  of  things  seen, 
by  the  natural  order  of  observation  from  a  definite 
point  of  view.  The  First  General  Impression  given  by 
the  first  hasty  view  of  a  scene  is  produced  by  the 
major  details  only,  and  the  greatest  of  these  would  be 
the  first  seen  and  the  first  called  up  by  the  memory  in 
attempting  to  recall  the  scene.  The  major  details  are 
characteristic,  and  hence  essential.  In  description,  they 
must  be  placed  early  in  the  paragraph,  and  then  the 
other  details  may  be  grouped  in  positions  of  such  im- 
portance as  will  show  their  relation  to  each  other,  and 
especially  to  the  most  significant  of  the  major  details. 
We  see  the  objects  in  a  room,  for  instance,  in  groups, 
and  we  see  the  most  prominent  and  striking  things 
first.    We  describe  in  the  same  order. 

Follow  the  order  of  observation  and  the  graded  order 
of  importance  in  grouping  details  in  description,  and 
coherence  will  result. 


304  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

In  impressionistic  description  the  grouping  is  deter- 
mined *by  the  emotional  point  of  view  which  most  fre- 
quently leads  one  to  place  the  most  important  details 
last  for  climactic  effect. 

Grouping  and  Wording  Important  Details  for  Pro- 
portion— Emphasis.  As  a  picture  without  emphasis 
is  flat,  so  description  without  proper  proportion  and 
emphasis  is  dull  and  meaningless.  It  neither  secures 
attention  nor  arouses  interest.     It  is  not  description. 

Since  both  coherence  and  emphasis,  in  description, 
are  closely  related  to  the  grouping  of  details,  they  are 
closely  related  to  each  other.  The  writer  of  description 
must  plan  for  emphasis  at  the  same  time  that  he  groups 
his  details  for  coherence,  both  to  save  time  and  to  se- 
cure the  best  effect.  The  most  striking  detail  which 
stands  out  in  clear  outline  in  the  First  General  Impres- 
sion demands  emphasis  in  describing  the  scene,  or 
object,  under  consideration.  Such  a  detail  may  be 
striking  because  of  its  importance,  or  because  of  its 
peculiarity  or  uniqueness.  Either  quality  would 
attract  the  attention  of  the  observer.  In  describing 
what  he  has  observed,  his  problem  is  to  make  the  same 
detail  as  emphatic,  because  of  its  importance  or 
uniqueness,  to  the  reader  of  the  description  as  it  is  to 
him.     How  shall  he  do  it? 

Methods  of  Securing  Emphasis.  Emphasis  being  a 
matter  of  proportion  and  relative  value,  it  may  be 
secured  in  several  ways: 

1.  By  Position.  The  emphatic  positions  in  a  para- 
graph are  always  at  the  beginning  and  at  the  end.     A 


DESCRIPTION  305 

detail  properly  placed  in  either  of  those  positions,  or 
in  both,  is  thereby  emphasized.  In  description,  how- 
ever, this  is  the  least  effective  means  and  is  rarely  used. 

2.  By  Position  Relative  to  Subordinated  Details. 
Again  think  of  the  picture  of  Milton.  One  would 
naturally  describe  it  by  placing  Milton  prominently  in 
the  group,  saying  more  about  him  and  less  of  the  other 
characters,  thus  making  him  stand  out  as  the  central, 
emphatic  figure. 

3.  By  the  Number  of  Details  Subordinated  to  the 
Chief  One.  The  greater  the  number  of  legitimately 
selected  details,  properly  subordinated  to  the  leading  one, 
the  greater  will  be  the  emphasis  upon  the  leading  one. 
For  instance,  in  describing  Mark  Antony  delivering  his 
speech  over  the  body  of  Caesar,  the  larger  the  multitude 
standing  around  the  rostrum,  in  varying  degrees  of 
attention,  the  more  would  Antony  himself  be  em- 
phasized. The  fact  that  such  a  multitude  could  keep 
still  enough  to  allow  an  orator  to  be  heard  at  all, 
subordinates  every  individual  in  the  whole  multitude 
to  him  and  his  speech. 

4.  By  Repetition.  Emphasis  by  reiteration  is  more 
effective  whether  it  be  by  repeating  the  same  word  or 
by  repeating  its  meaning  by  synonyms.  The  gradually 
accumulated  force  acquired  by  this  method  of  emphasis 
is  irresistible  and  its  emotional  effect  is  very  marked. 
Read  the  following  with  care  to  discover  the  poet's 
method  of  emphasis  by  reiteration : 

"I  wandered  lonely  as  a  cloud 

That  floats  on  high  o'er  vales  and  hills, 


306  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

When  all  at  once  I  saw  a  crowd, 

A  host,  of  golden  daffodils, 
Beside  the  lake,  beneath  the  trees, 
Fluttering  and  dancing  in  the  breeze. 

"Continuous  as  the  stars  that  shine 

And  twinkle  on  the  milky  way, 
They  stretched  in  never-ending  line 

Along  the  margin  of  the  bay: 
Ten  thousand  saw  I  at  a  glance 
Tossing  their  heads  in  sprightly  dance. 

"The  waves  beside  them  danced;    but  they 
Outdid  the  sparkling  waves  in  glee: 
A  poet  could  not  but  be  gay, 
In  such  a  jocund  company: 
I  gazed — and  gazed — but  little  thought 
What  wealth  to  me  the  show  had  brought: 

"For,  oft,  when  on  my  couch  I  lie 

In  vacant  or  in  pensive  mood, 
They  flash  upon  that  inward  eye 

Which  is  the  bliss  of  solitude: 
And  then  my  heart  with  pleasure  fills, 
And  dances  with  the  daffodils." 

Wordsworth  did  not  name  this  little  poem,  so  we 
may  call  it  what  we  will.  If  we  should  seek  to  name 
it  according  to  its  theme  we  might  call  it  The  Joy  of 
Remembering  Beautiful  Scenes.  The  poem  might  be 
called  meditative,  but  it  is  a  remarkable  bit  of  im- 
pressionistic description  accomplished  by  emphasizing, 
by  repetition-,  the  idea  of  the  daffodils  dancing  in  the 
breeze,  and  ending  by  showing  the  permanent  effect 
upon  his  own  soul  when  in  solitude.  Note  how  he 
begins  by  emphasizing  the  number  of  the  daffodils: 
"a  crowd,  a  host,  of  golden  daffodils,"  "They  stretched 


DESCRIPTION  307 

in  never-ending  line,"  "Ten  thousand  saw  I."  But  the 
number  is  repeatedly  emphasized,  by  striking  words, 
only  to  aid  in  emphasizing  the  joy  and  gladness  of  the 
scene.  Notice  what  the  "golden  daffodils"  are  doing: 
"fluttering  and  dancing,"  "tossing  their  heads  in 
sprightly  dance,"  "they  outdid  the  sparkling  waves 
in  glee,"  "such  a  jocund  company."  And  then  note 
the  climax  of  the  emphasis  when  the  poet  says,  in 
conclusion : 

"They  flash  upon  that  inward  eye 
Which  is  the  bliss  of  solitude: 
And  then  my  heart  with  pleasure  fills, 
And  dances  with  the  daffodils." 

The  following  little  poem  by  the  same  writer  shows 
emphasis  by  repetition: 

"My  heart  leaps  up  when  I  behold 
A  rainbow  in  the  sky; 
So  was  it  when  my  life  began; 
So  is  it  now  I  am  a  man; 
So  be  it  when  I  shall  grow  old, 
Or  let  me  die!" 

Strong  emphasis  is  also  secured  by  repetition  of  a 
single  word  with  different  connotations,  throughout  the 
whole  description. 

"And  Charlemagne  appeared; — a  Man  of  Iron! 
His  helmet  was  of  iron,  and  his  gloves 
Of  iron,  and  his  breastplate  and  his  greaves 
And  tassets  were  of  iron,  and  his  shield. 
In  his  left  hand  he  held  an  iron  spear, 
In  his  right  hand  his  sword  invincible. 
The  horse  he  rode  on  had  the  strength  of  iron, 
And  the  color  of  iron.    And  all  who  went  before  him, 


308  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

Beside  him  and  beneath  him,  his  whole  host, 
Were  armed  with  iron,  and  their  hearts  within  them 
Were  stronger  than  the  armor  that  they  wore. 
The  fields  and  all  the  roads  were  filled  with  iron, 
And  points  of  iron  glistened  in  the  sun 
And  shed  a  terror  through  the  city  streets." 

— LONGFELLOW 

Here  we  have  emphasis  by  the  combination  of  two 
methods:  by  position  and  by  repetition.  The  topic 
sentence  states  the  iron  qualities  of  Charlemagne;  but 
how  meager  is  that  emphasis  compared  with  what  is 
further  gained  by  repeating  the  word  "iron"  nine  times 
in  connection  with  new  details. 

5.  By  Diction.  Provided  the  words  used  are  apt  and 
concrete,  the  fewer  one  uses  the  greater  the  emphasis. 
Wordiness  always  tends  to  weakening  an  impression. 
The  greatest  care  should  be  used  in  selecting  adjectives 
in  description;  they  should  be  strong,  concrete,  and 
suggestive  to  the  point  of  boldness.  Note  the  following 
from  Byron: 

"Ye  stars!   which  are  the  poetry  of  heaven!" 

"Oh  Rome!    my  country!    city  of  the  soul! 
The  orphans  of  the  heart  must  turn  to  thee, 
Lone  mother  of  dead  empires!" 

"The  Niobe  of  nations!    there  she  stands, 
Childless  and  crownless,  in  her  voiceless  woe!" 

"Roll  on,  thou  deep  and  dark-blue  ocean — roll! 
Ten  thousand  fleets  sweep  over  thee  in  vain; 
Man  marks  the  earth  with  ruin — his  control 
Stops  with  the  shore  .  .  . 

He  sinks  into  thy  depths  with  a  bubbling  groan, 
Without  a  grave,  unknell'd,  uncoffin'd,  and  unknown.' 


DESCRIPTION  309 

6.  By  Striking  Figures  of  Speech.  The  nature  of 
figures  of  speech  makes  them  emphatic.  Exclamation, 
epithet,  personification,  aposthophe,  inversion,  the 
rhetorical  question,  hyperbole,  climax,  antithesis,  some 
metaphors,  and  irony,  have  all  been  used  most  effec- 
tively to  produce  emphasis.  The  illustrations  given 
under  the  head  of  diction  may  also  serve  to  show  the 
value  of  figures  of  speech  as  a  means  of  securing  em- 
phasis. Most  of  the  figures  just  mentioned  demand 
choice  diction.  In  all  impassioned  descriptions  figures 
of  speech  will  be  found  the  best  means  of  securing  proper 
emphasis.     Note  the  following: 

"Ah,  Fear!    ah,  frantic  Fear! 
I  see — I  see  thee  near." 

Search  through  any  good  anthology  for  further  ex- 
amples of  emphasis  by  means  of  vivifying  details  by 
the  use  of  striking  figures  of  speech. 

Diction  in  Description.  In  no  other  kind  of  writing 
is  diction  so  important  as  in  description.  Here  is  of 
supreme  value.  Without  choice  and  masterful  diction 
description  falls  far  short  of  its  purpose — in  fact  it  is 
impossible.  Description  demands  fine  shades  of  mean- 
ing; it  demands  suggestive  words  which  tell  more  than 
meets  the  eye;  it  calls  for  vividness  and  conciseness, 
for  picturesqueness  and  for  emotion;  and  proper  dic- 
tion supplies  all  these  demands.  The  greatest  masters 
of  description,  such  as  Coleridge,  Poe,  and  Stevenson, 
have  had  a  "genius  for  the  right  word,"  and  much  of 
their  success  has  been  due  to  that  quality.  They 
should  be  studied  for  legitimate  imitation. 


310  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

Good  description  has  been  said  to  depend  upor  cor- 
rect observation,  but  without  proper  diction  the  obser- 
vation goes  for  naught.  The  use  of  the  right  words, 
words  of  correct  denotation  and  connotation,  preserve 
the  effects  of  observation  for  the  reader,  and  are,  in 
short,  the  finishing  touch  in  good  description. 

The  act  of  choosing  words  must  be  looked  up«»n  as 
quite  separate  from  the  process  of  composition.  When 
one  has  done  his  best  in  selecting  and  arranging  his 
thoughts,  he  should  go  over  his  work  again  with  the 
sole  purpose  of  improving  his  diction.  Only  so  can  he 
hope  for  the  really  finished  product.  In  description 
the  words  that  need  special  attention  are  the  verbs  and 
the  adjectives,  for  both  are  of  special  value  where  em- 
phasis and  beauty  are  sought. 

Read  carefully  the  following  descriptions,  and  answer 
concerning  each  of  them  the  following  questions: 

1.  What  does  it  appeal  to,  my  senses  or  my  feelings?  What 
senses?    What  kind  of  feelings  does  it  arouse? 

2.  Is  the  description  detailed  or  impressionistic? 

3.  Is  it  pure  description,  or  are  there  narrative,  expository,  or 
argumentative  elements  in  it? 

4.  Does  the  description  really  make  me  see  or  feel  as  the  author 
intended  to  make  his  readers  see  and  feel?  How  has  he  succeeded 
in  doing  it? 

5.  What  is  the  first  general  impression?    . 

6.  Are  the  details  subordinated  to  it?    How? 

7.  Does  the  description  possess  any  suggestive  elements?  Has 
it  any  words  of  large  connotation?    If  so,  what  are  they? 

8.  Are  there  any  illustrations  of  informal  description?  What 
are  they? 

9.  Does  the  passage  stand  the  test  for  unity?  for  coherence? 
for  emphasis?    By  what  means  is  emphasis  secured? 

10.  Comment  upon  the  diction.     Is  it  vivid?    Is  it  forceful? 


DESCRIPTION  311 

Is  it  appropriate?     Is  it  concise?     Is  there  any  loss  of  power  by  the 
use  of  general  terms  where  specific  ones  would  be  better? 

11.  Are  you  interested  in  the  description  as  it  stands  inde- 
pendent of  its  context?  Do  you  feel  that  the  description  is  a  suf- 
ficiently good  finished  product  of  its  kind  to  make  the  context 
from  which  it  is  taken  appeal  to  you? 

"The  conversation  of  Scott  was  frank, 
hearty,  picturesque,  and  dramatic.  During 
the  time  of  my  visit  he  inclined  to  the  comic 
rather  than  the  grave  in  his  anecdotes  and 
stories,  and  such,  I  was  told,  was  his  general 
inclination.  He  relished  a  joke,  or  a  trait  of 
humor  in  social  intercourse,  and  he  laughed 
with  right  good  will.  He  talked  not  for  effect 
nor  display,  but  from  the  flow  of  his  spirits, 
the  stores  of  his  memory,  and  the  vigor  of  his 
imagination.  He  had  a  natural  turn  for  narra- 
tion, and  his  narratives  and  descriptions  were 
without  effort,  yet  wonderfully  graphic.  He 
placed  the  scene  before  you  like  a  picture;  he 
gave  the  dialogue  with  the  appropriate  dialect 
or  peculiarities,  and  described  the  appearance 
and  characters  of  his  personages  with  that 
spirit  and  felicity  evinced  in  his  writings.  In- 
deed, his  conversation  reminded  me  contin- 
ually of  his  novels;  and  it  seemed  to  me  that 
during  the  whole  time  I  was  with  him  he  talked 
enough  to  fill  volumes,  and  that  they  could  not 
have  been  filled  more  delightfully. 

"He  was  as  good  a  listener  as  talker,  ap- 
preciating everything  that  others  said,  how- 
ever humble  might  be  their  rank  or  preten- 
tions, and  was  quick  to  testify  his  perception 
of  any  point  in  their  discourse.  He  arrogated 
nothing  to  himself,  but  was  perfectly  unas- 


312  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

suming.  and  unpretending,  entering  with  heart 
and  soul  into  the  business,  or  pleasure,  or,  I 
had  almost  said,  folly,  of  the  hour  and  the 
company.  No  one's  concerns,  no  one's 
thoughts,  no  one's  opinions,  no  one's  tastes 
and  pleasures,  seemed  beneath  him.  He  made 
himself  so  thoroughly  the  companion  of  those 
with  whom  he  happened  to  be  that  they  forgot, 
for  a  time,  his  vast  superiority,  and  only  recol- 
lected and  wondered  when  all  was  over  that 
it  was  Scott  with  whom  they  had  been  on 
such  familiar  terms,  and  in  whose  society  they 
had  felt  so  perfectly  at  their  ease." 

— Abbots  ford:   Washington  Irving 

"For  myself,  I  could  not  have  been  more 
delighted  if  I  had  heard  the  music  of  the 
spheres.  Poetry  and  Philosophy  had  met 
together.  Truth  and  Genius  had  embraced, 
under  the  eye  and  with  the  sanction  of  religion. 
This  was  even  beyond  my  hopes.  I  returned 
home  well  satisfied.  The  sun  that  was  still 
laboring,  pale  and  wan,  through  the  sky,  ob- 
scured by  thick  mists,  seemed  an  emblem  of 
the  good  cause;  and  the  cold,  dank  drops  of 
dew,  that  hung  half  melted  on  the  beard  of 
the  thistle,  had  something  genial  and  refresh- 
ing in  them;  for  there  was  a  spirit  of  home 
and  youth  in  all  nature  that  turned  everything 
into  good." 

— William  Hazlitt  on  hearing  a  sermon  by  Coleridge 

"This  was  once  a  house  of  trade,  a  center 
of  busy  interests.  The  throng  of  merchants 
was  here — the  quick  pulse  of  gain — and  here 


DESCRIPTION  313 

some  forms  of  business  are  still  kept  up,  though 
the  soul  be  long  since  fled.  Here  are  still  to  be 
seen  stately  porticoes;  imposing  staircases; 
offices  roomy  as  the  state  apartments  in  pal- 
aces— deserted,  or  thinly  peopled  with  a  few 
straggling  clerks;  the  still  more  sacred  inte- 
riors of  court  and  committee  rooms,  with  ven- 
erable faces  of  beadles,  doorkeepers — directors 
seated  in  form  on  solemn  days  (to  proclaim 
a  dead  dividend)  at  long  worm-eaten  tables, 
that  had  been  mahogany,  with  tarnished  gilt- 
leather  coverings,  supporting  massy  silver  ink- 
stands long  since  dry;  the  oaken  wainscots 
hung  with  pictures  of  deceased  governors  and 
subgovernors,  of  Queen  Anne,  and  the  first 
two  monarchs  of  the  Brunswick  dynasty; 
huge  charts,  which  subsequent  discoverers 
have  antiquated ;  dusty  maps  of  Mexico,  dim 
as  dreams,  and  soundings  of  the  Bay  of  Pan- 
ama. The  long  passages  hung  with  buckets, 
appended  in  idle  rows  to  walls,  whose  sub- 
stance might  defy  any  short  of  the  last  con- 
flagration; with  vast  ranges  of  cellarage  under 
all ;  where  dollars  and  pieces  of  eight  once  lay, 
an  '  unsunned  heap/  for  Mammon  to  have 
solaced  his  solitary  heart  withal — long  since 
dissipated,  or  scattered  into  air  at  the  blast 
of  the  breaking  of  that  famous  bubble." 
Such  was  the  South  Sea  House. 

— The  South  Sea  House:  Charles  Lamb 

"What  a  careless,  even  deportment  hath 
your  borrower !  what  rosy  gills !  what  a  beau- 
tiful reliance  on  Providence  doth  he  manifest, 
taking  no  more  thought  than  the  lilies!    What 


314  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

contempt  for  money,  accounting  it  (yours  and 
mine  especially)  no  better  than  dross!  What 
a  liberal  confounding  of  those  pedantic  dis- 
tinctions of  meum  and  tuuml  or  rather,  what 
a  noble  simplification  of  language  (beyond 
Tooke),  resolving  those  supposed  opposites 
into  one  clear,  intelligible  pronoun-adjective! 
What  near  approaches  doth  he  make  to  the 
primitive  community,  to  the  extent  of  half  the 
principal  at  least!" 

— The  Two  Races  of  Men:  Charles  Lamb 

"Fall!  and  everywhere  the  sights  and 
sounds  of  falling.  In  the  woods,  through  the 
cool,  silvery  air,  the  leaves,  so  indispensable 
once,  so  useless  now.  Bright  day  after  bright 
day,  dripping  night  after  dripping  night,  the 
never-ending  filtering  or  gusty  fall  of  leaves. 
The  fall  of  walnuts,  dropping  from  bare 
boughs,  with  muffled  boom  into  the  deep 
grass.  The  fall  of  the  hickory  nut,  rattling 
noisily  down  through  the  scaly  limbs  and 
scattering  its  hulls  among  the  stones  of  the 
brook  below.  The  fall  of  buckeyes,  rolling 
like  balls  of  mahogany  into  the  little  dust 
paths  made  by  sheep  in  the  hot  months  when 
they  had  sought  those  roofs  of  leaves.  The  fall 
of  acorns,  leaping  out  of  their  matted  green 
cups  as  they  strike  the  rooty  earth.  The  fall 
of  red  haw,  persimmon,  and  pawpaw,  and  the 
odorous  wild  plum  in  its  valley  of  thickets. 
The  fall  of  all  seeds  whatsoever  of  the  forest, 
now  made  ripe  in  their  high  places  and  sent 
back  to  the  ground,  there  to  be  folded  in 
against  the  time  when  they  shall  arise  again 


DESCRIPTION  315 

as  the  living  generations;  the  homing,  down- 
ward flight  of  the  seeds  in  the  many  colored 
woods  all  over  the  quiet  land." 

— The  Reign  of  Law:  James  Lane  Allen 

"Newstead  Abbey  is  one  of  the  finest  speci- 
mens in  existence  of  those  quaint  and  roman- 
tic piles,  half  castle,  half  convent,  which  re- 
main as  monuments  of  the  olden  times  of 
England.  It  stands,  too,  in  the  midst  of  a  leg- 
endary neighborhood,  being  in  the  heart  of 
Sherwood  Forest,  and  surrounded  by  the 
haunts  of  Robin  Hood  and  his  band  of  outlaws, 
so  famous  in  ancient  ballad  and  nursery  tale. 
It  is  true,  the  forest  scarcely  exists  but  in 
name,  and  the  tract  of  country  over  which  it 
once  extended  its  broad  solitudes  and  shades 
is  now  an  open  and  smiling  region,  cultivated 
with  parks  and  farms,  and  enlivened  with 
villages."  — Abbotsford:  Washington  Irving 

"One  of  the  pleasantest  rooms  at  Holly  well 
was  Mrs.  Edmonstone's  dressing-room — large 
and  bay-windowed,  over  the  drawing-room, 
having  little  of  the  dressing-room  but  the 
name,  and  a  toilet  table  with  a  black  and  gold 
japanned  glass,  and  curiously  shaped  boxes 
to  match;  her  room  opened  into  it  on  one  side, 
and  Charles's  on  the  other;  it  was  a  sort  of 
upstairs  parlour,  where  she  taught  Charlotte, 
cast  up  accounts,  spoke  to  servants,  and  wrote 
notes,  and  where  Charles  was  usually  to  be 
found,  when  unequal  to  coming  downstairs. 
It  had  an  air  of  great  snugness,  with  its  large 
folding  screen,  covered  with  prints  and  cari- 


316  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

catures  of  ancient  date,  its  book-shelves,  its 
tables,  its  peculiarly  easy  armchairs,  the  great 
invalid  sofa,  and  the  grate,  which  always 
lighted  up  better  than  any  other  in  the  house." 

_     — The  Heir  of  Redely ffe:  Charlotte  M.  Yonge 

u  Heaven  opened  then,  indeed.  The  flash 
was  almost  too  novel  for  its  inexpressibly  dan- 
gerous nature  to  be  at  once  realized,  and 
Gabriel  could  only  comprehend  the  magnifi- 
cence of  its  beauty.  It  sprang  from  east,  west, 
north,  south.  It  was  a  perfect  dance  of  death. 
The  forms  of  skeletons  appeared  in  the  air, 
shaped  with  blue  fire  for  bones — dancing, 
leaping,  striding,  racing  around,  and  mingling 
altogether  in  unparalleled  confusion.  With 
these  were  intertwined  undulating  snakes  of 
green.  Behind  these  was  a  broad  mass  of 
lesser  light.  Simultaneously  came  from  every 
part  of  the  tumbling  sky  what  may  be  called 
a  shout;  since,  though  no  shout  ever  came 
near  it,  it  was  more  of  the  nature  of  a  shout 
than  of  anything  else  earthly.  In  the  mean- 
time one  of  the  grisly  forms  had  alighted  upon 
the  point  of  Gabriel's  rod,  to  run  invisibly 
down  it,  down  the  chain,  and  into  the  earth. 
Gabriel  was  almost  blinded,  and  he  could  feel 
Bathsheba's  warm  arm  tremble  in  his  hand 
— a  sensation  novel  and  thrilling  enough :  but 
love,  life,  everything  human,  seemed  small 
and  trifling  in  such  juxtaposition  with  an  in- 
furiated universe. " 

— Far  from  the  Madding  Crowd:  Thomas  Hardy 

"Fitzpiers  was,  on  the  whole,  a  finely 
formed,  handsome  man.    His  eyes  were  dark 


DESCRIPTION  317 

and  impressive,  and  beamed  with  the  light 
either  of  energy  or  of  susceptivity — it  was 
difficult  to  say  which;  it  might  have  been  a 
little  of  both.  That  quick,  glittering,  practi- 
cal eye,  sharp  for  the  surface  of  things  and  for 
nothing  beneath  it,  he  had  not.  But  whether 
his  apparent  depth  of  vision  was  real,  or  only 
an  artistic  accident  of  his  corporeal  molding, 
nothing  but  his  deeds  could  reveal. 

"His  face  was  rather  soft  than  stern,  charm- 
ing than  grand,  pale  than  flushed;  his  nose 
— if  a  sketch  of  his  features  be  de  rigueur  for  a 
person  of  his  pretentions — was  artistically 
beautiful  enough  to  have  been  worth  doing 
in  marble  by  any  sculptor  not  over-busy,  and 
was  hence  devoid  of  those  knotty  irregulari- 
ties which  often  mean  power;  while  the 
double-cyma  or  classical  curve  of  his  mouth 
was  not  without  a  looseness  in  its  close. 
Nevertheless,  either  from  his  readily  appreci- 
ative mein,  or  his  reflective  manner,  or  the 
instinct  toward  profound  things  which  was 
said  to  possess  him,  his  presence  bespoke  the 
philosopher  rather  than  the  dandy  or  maca- 
roni— an  effect  which  was  helped  by  the  ab- 
sence of  trinkets  or  other  trivialities  from  his 
attire,  though  this  was  more  finished  and  up 
to  date  than  is  usually  the  case  among  rural 
practitioners."— The  Woodlanders:  Thomas  Hardy 

"It  was  a  fair,  sweet,  and  honest  country 
face,  reposing  in  a  nest  of  wavy  chestnut  hair. 
It  was  between  pretty  and  beautiful.  Though 
her  eyes  were  closed,  one  could  easily  imagine 
the  light  necessarily  shining  in  them  as  the 


318  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

culmination  of  the  luminous  workmanship 
around.  The  groundwork  of  the  face  was 
hopefulness;  but  over  it  now  lay,  like  a  foreign 
substance,  a  film  of  anxiety  and  grief.  The 
grief  had  been  there  so  shortly  as  to  have  ab- 
stracted nothing  of  the  bloom:  it  has  as  yet 
but  given  a  dignity  to  what  it  might  even- 
tually undermine.  The  scarlet  of  her  lips  had 
not  had  time  to  abate,  and  just  now  it  ap- 
peared still  more  intense  by  the  absence  of 
the  neighboring  and  more  transient  color  of  her 
cheek.  The  lips  were  frequently  parted,  with 
a  murmur  of  words.  She  seemed  to  belong 
rightly  to  a  madrigal — to  require  viewing 
through  rhyme  and  harmony/ ' 

— The  Return  of  the  Native:  Thomas  Hardy 

"Norcombe  Hill — forming  a  part  of  Nor- 
combe  Ewelease — was  one  of  the  spots  which 
suggest  to  a  passer-by  that  he  is  in  the  pres- 
ence of  a  shape  approaching  the  indestructible 
as  nearly  as  any  to  be  found  on  earth.  It 
was  a  featureless  convexity  of  chalk  and  soil — 
an  ordinary  specimen  of  those  smoothly  out- 
lined protuberances  of  the  globe  which  may 
remain  undisturbed  on  some  great  day  of  con- 
fusion, when  far  grander  heights  and  dizzy 
granite  precipices  topple  down. 

"The  hill  was  covered  on  the  northern  side 
by  an  ancient  and  decaying  plantation  of 
beeches,  whose  upper  verge  formed  a  line  over 
the  crest,  fringing  its  arched  curve  against  the 
sky,  like  a  mane.  To-night  these  trees  shel- 
tered the  southern  slope  from  the  keenest 
blasts,  which  smote  the  wood  and  floundered 


DESCRIPTION  319 

through  it  with  a  sound  as  of  grumbling,  or 
gashed  over  its  crowning  boughs  in  a  weakened 
moan.  The  dry  leaves  in  the  ditch  simmered 
and  boiled  in  the  same  breezes,  a  tongue  of  air 
occasionally  ferreting  out  a  few,  and  sending 
them  spinning  across  the  grass.  A  group  or 
two  of  the  latest  in  date  among  this  dead  mul- 
titude had  remained  on  the  twigs  which  bore 
them  till  this  very  midwinter  time,  and  in  fall- 
ing rattled  against  the  trunks  with  smart  taps. 
"Between  this  half -wooded,  half -naked  hill, 
and  the  vague,  still  horizon  its  summit  indis- 
tinctly commanded,  was  a  mysterious  sheet 
of.  fathomless  shade,  the  sounds  only  from 
which  suggested  that  what  it  concealed  bore 
some  humble  resemblance  to  features  here. 
The  thin  grasses,  more  or  less  coating  the  hill, 
were  touched  by  the  wind  in  breezes  of  dif- 
fering powers  and  almost  differing  natures — 
one  rubbing  the  blades  heavily,  another  raking 
them  piercingly,  another  brushing  them  like 
a  soft  broom.  The  instinctive  act  of  human- 
kind here  was  to  stand  and  listen,  and  learn 
how  the  trees  on  the  right  and  the  trees  on  the 
left  wailed  and  chanted  to  each  other  in  the 
regular  antiphonies  of  a  cathedral  choir;  how 
hedges  and  other  shapes  to  leeward  then 
caught  the  note,  lowering  it  to  the  tenderest 
sob ;  and  how  the  hurrying  gust  then  plunged 
into  the  south,  to  be  heard  no  more." 

— Far  from  the  Madding  Crowd:  Thomas  Hardy 

"The  most  striking  point  about  the  room 
was  the  furniture.  This  was  a  repetition  upon 
inanimate  objects  of  the  old  principle  intro- 


320  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

duced  by  Noah,  consisting  for  the  most  part 
of  two  articles  of  every  sort.  The  duplicate 
system  of  furnishing  owed  its  existence  to  the 
forethought  of  Fancy's  mother,  exercised  from 
the  date  of  Fancy's  birthday  onwards.  The 
arrangement  spoke  for  itself:  nobody  who 
knew  the  tone  of  the  household  could  look  at 
the  goods  without  being  aware  that  the  second 
set  was  a  provision  for  Fancy,  when  she  should 
marry  and  have  a  house  of  her  own.  The 
most  noticeable  instance  was  a  pair  of  green- 
faced  eight-day  clocks,  ticking  alternately, 
which  were  severally  two  and  a  half  minutes 
and  three  minutes  striking  the  hour  of  twelve, 
one  proclaiming,  in  Italian  flourishes,  Thomas 
Wood  as  the  name  of  its  maker,  and  the  other 
— arched  at  the  top,  and  altogether  of  more 
cynical  appearance — that  of  Ezekiel  Saunders. 
They  were  two  departed  clockmakers  of  Cas- 
terbridge,  whose  desperate  rivalry  throughout 
their  lives  was  nowhere  more  emphatically 
perpetuated  than  here  at  Godfrey's.  These 
chief  specimens  of  the  marriage  provision  were 
supported  on  the  right  by  a  couple  of  kitchen 
dressers,  each  fitted  complete  with  their  cups, 
dishes,  and  plates,  in  their  turn  followed  by 
two  dumbwaiters,  two  family  Bibles,  two 
warming-pans,  and  two  intermixed  sets  of 
chairs." — Under  the  Greenwood  Tree:  Thomas  Hardy 

Having  defined  and  illustrated  description,  it  is  now 
time  to  practice  until  facility  is  acquired  in  making 
finished  products  in  this  kind  of  discourse.  All  that 
has  gone  before  should  aid  in  what  is  attempted  here. 


DESCRIPTION  321 

Write  detailed  descriptions  upon  enough  of  the  fol- 
lowing to  familiarize  you  with  several  different  kinds  of 
topics.     Confine  each  to  a  single  paragraph. 

A  View  of  a  Campfire  at  Night  from  a  short  Distance. 
A  Summer  Sunset. 

What  I  saw  during  my  morning  Walk. 
The  Country  railroad  Station  when  the  evening  Train 
came  in. 
The  Group  around  the  Hurdy-gurdy  Man. 
The  Grand  Stand  during  the  Football  Game. 
The  Crowd  at  the  Village  Post  Office  awaiting  the  Mail. 
The  Group  around  the  Fireplace. 
The  Wreck  on  the  Railroad. 
In  the  Wake  of  the  Storm. 

A  DrOp  of  Water  as  seen  through  a  Microscope. 
How  the  Moon  looks  through  a  Telescope. 
The  Wrecked  Boat  on  the  Beach. 
The  Gypsy  Camp. 
The  View  from  the  Church  Tower. 
The  Waterfall  in  the  Glen. 
An  Old  Cemetery. 
When  the  Apple  Trees  Blossom. 
From  my  Window. 
The  Forest  Fire. 
An  Iceberg. 
The  Muskrat  Mound. 
A  Market  Scene. 
The  Arrest  of  the  Tramp. 

Write  a  detailed  and  then  an  impressionistic  descrip- 
tion of  five  of  the  following,  being  careful  to  show  the 
differences  between  the  two  kinds: 

The  Fisherman's  Hut. 
The  Lumber  Camp. 

The  College  Room  of  a  Slovenly  Boy  (or  Girl). 
How  the  Congregation  Looked  when  Lightning  Struck 
the  Church  Steeple. 
The  Happy  Picnic  Party  at  Dinner. 


322  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

The  Interrupted  Sermon. 

The  Back  Yard  before  Clean-up  Day. 

Moonlight  upon  the  Lake. 

The  Family  Circle  when  Hearing  Bad  News  from  the  Front. 

Shooting  the  Rapids. 

The  Uninvited  Guest.  (When  a  tramp  invades  a  tea  party 
in  the  country.) 

The  Empty  Sleeve. 

A  View  in  the  Park  after  a  Snow  Storm. 

When  the  Circus  Went  by  the  School.  (Pupils  not  allowed 
to  go  to  the  window.) 

Single  Blessedness.  (An  old  bachelor  in  his  room.  De- 
scribe him  and  his  room.) 

Scene  upon  the  Football  Field  immediately  after  the 
Game. 

Write  an  illustration  for  a  favorite  scene  from  some 
book. 

For  more  difficult  exercises  in  description  write  upon 
the  following: 

1.  What  I  saw  led  me  to  conclude  that  it  was  a  doctor's  office. 
(Use  the  foregoing  as  a  topic  sentence  for  a  descriptive  paragraph. 
Decide  iov  yourself  whether  to  use  detailed  or  impressionistic 
description.  Use  as  few  words  as  possible.  Imagine  that  much 
depends  upon  the  success  of  your  description;   make  it  count.) 

2.  Imagine  yourself  a  reporter  on  a  city  paper.  Describe,  in  the 
way  that  seems  best  for  your  paper,  what  you  saw  in  a  room  that 
had  been  ransacked  by  a  burglar  seeking  for  jewelry. 

3.  In  a  narrative  paragraph  of  not  more  than  one  hundred  and 
fifty  words,  introduce  enough  informal  description  to  give  a  clear 
view  of  at  least  three  important  characteristics  of  a  man  who 
passes  your  home,  apparently  having  escaped  from  a  state  hospital. 
Use  no  formal  description.    Do  not  retard  the  narrative  at  all. 

4.  Imagine  a  monkey  to  have  escaped  from  his  cage  at  the  Zoo 
when  many  people  are  present.  He  does  no  serious  damage,  but 
multilates  several  ladies'  hats  and  terrifies  the  ladies.  Report 
the  scene,  using  the  kind  of  description  you  think  best.  Tell  why 
you  select  the  kind  you  use.  Confine  yourself  to  one  hundred 
words. 


DESCRIPTION  323 

5.  Describe  a  harvest  scene  which  appeals  to  at  least  four  senses, 
to  your  feelings,  both  pleasant  and  unpleasant,  and  to  your  aesthetic 
nature.  Limit  yourself  to  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  words. 
Tell  why  you  describe  as  you  do. 

6.  Without  pausing  in  your  narrative  for  formal  description,tell 
informally,  or  suggestively,  enough  about  a  man's  appearance  and 
character  to  prepossess  one  in  his  favor  while  relating  some  anecdote 
concerning  him.     One  hundred  words  only. 

7.  Describe  one  of  your  classmates  informally,  without  using 
more  than  six  descriptive  words,  so  that  his  friends  would  recognize 
him.  Intersperse  this  informal  description  through  some  hundred 
words  of  narration. 

8.  A  masked  man  accosts  you  on  a  dark  night  and  demands  your 
purse.  You  are  about  to  comply  when  a  policeman  appears  and 
the  thief  runs  away.  You  are  asked  to  describe  him  for  the  sake 
of  identification.  Three  senses  help  you  out.  Describe  him  suf- 
ficiently to  enable  the  police  to  identify  him  by  comparing  what  you 
say  with  what  they  have  on  record  at  headquarters.  Limit  your- 
self to  eighty  words. 

9.  In  a  telegram  of  ten  words  inform  a  stranger  you  are  to  meet 
in  Buffalo  how  he  may  recognize  you  at  the  station,  what  road  you 
will  take,  and  what  time  you  will  arrive. 

10.  Write  a  brief  description,  about  sixty  words,  of  a  hot  day. 
Make  your  readers  feel  the  heat. 

11.  Describe  a  table  set  for  a  Christmas  dinner  so  as  to  make 
your  readers  hungry.     One  hundred  words.     Impressionistic. 

12.  Describe  a  house  impressionistically  so  as  to  inspire  dread  of 
entering  it.     About  one  hundred  words. 

13.  Describe  a  group  of  people  engaged  in  conversation.  Do  not 
tell  what  they  are  talking  about;  so  describe  that  you  give  some 
general  idea  of  the  nature  of  the  subject  under  consideration.  One 
hundred  and  fifty  words. 

14.  Describe  a  room,  giving  special  attention  to  "atmosphere," 
so  as  to  show  it  to  be  the  abode  of  a  person  of  poverty,  or  wealth, 
or  bad  taste,  or  culture.  About  one  hundred  and  twenty-five 
words. 

15.  A  young  lady  has  just  received  a  letter  which  she  reads  in 
your  presence.  Describe  the  scene  •  in  such  a  way  as  to  show 
why  you  consider  it  a  love  letter,  or  a  business  letter,  or  a  milliner's 
bill.     Seventy-five  words. 

16.  Describe  a  fellow  passenger  on  a  street  car.  Bring  out  what 
you  judge  his  walk  in  life  to  be.    Take  into  account  his  general 


324  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

appearance,  his  bearing,  his  dress,  what  he  has  in  his  hand,  his 
voice,  and  any  other  interesting  thing  that  you  specially  notice. 

17.  Describe,  very  carefully  so  as  to  avoid  confusion,  an  angry 
person,  a  lazy  man,  a  busy  man,  a  nervous  man,  a  tramp,  a  con- 
tented person,  a  haughty  man,  Mr.  Micawber,  Uriah  Heep,  the 
hypocrite,  and  a  Secret  Service  man.  Use  only  forty  words  for 
each. 

18.  Describe  a  bashful  boy  in  society.     Eighty  words. 

19.  Describe  the  neighborhood  nuisance.  Give  your  own  con- 
ceptions, but  be  careful  to  give  definite  characteristics.  One 
hundred  words. 

20.  Imagine  yourself  in  a  very  melancholy  mood.  Describe  a 
wedding  ceremony.     One  hundred  words. 

21.  Describe  the  same  ceremony  from  the  emotional  point  of 
view  of  a  happy  man,  to  be  married  in  a  month,  who  acts  as  best 
man  at  the  wedding  described.     One  hundred  and  fifty  words. 

22.  Write  a  dialogue  between  yourself  and  a  book  agent.  Bring 
out  during  the  conversation  an  informal  description  of  yourself  and 
of  the  agent.     Two  hundred  words. 

23.  Write. a  description  of  the  most  impressive  scene  you  ever 
witnessed.  Limit  yourself  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  words.  Be 
keenly  alive  to  your  task.  Make  every  word  count.  Use  words  of 
large  connotation.  Use  some  words  figuratively.  Make  your 
reader  see  and  feel  what  you  describe.     Describe;  do  not  explain. 

24.  Write  a  vivid,  spirited  description  of  some  scene  depicting 
rapid  motion  and  great  excitement,  like  "going  over  the  top." 
Be  careful  of  your  choice  of  words.  One  hundred  words.  Im- 
pressionistic. 

25.  Practice  writing  descriptions  of  buildings,  landscapes,  sea- 
scapes, object  in  rest  and  in  motion,  animals,  people  singly  and  in 
groups,  intimate  personal  descriptions  bringing  out  inner  traits  of 
character,  and  descriptions  showing  rapid  changes  from  one  emotion 
to  another. 


Concluding  Word 

In  all  descriptive  writing  be  careful  to  select  the 
best  physical,  mental,  and  emotional  point  of  view; 
to  arrange  the  first  general  impression  and  major  and 


DESCRIPTION  325 

minor  details  artistically,  to  use  suitable  diction,  and  so 
produce  creditable  results. 

Remember  that  description  is  chiefly  used  for  en- 
riching narration  and  not  for  its  own  sake.  But  do 
not  make  the  mistake  of  thinking  it  is  of  minor  im- 
portance and  can  be  slighted.  Good  description  is  of 
the  greatest  value  in  making  other  writing  effective 
and  it  tests  the  writer's  skill  more  than  any  other  form 
of  discourse. 

Be  on  the  alert,  then,  to  discover  things  to  describe 
and  learn  to  describe  them  fully,  impressionistically, 
and  suggestively,  so  that  you  may  be  able  to  employ 
this  form  of  discourse  effectively  whenever  it  may  be 
used  to  advantage. 


CHAPTER  IX 
EXPOSITION 

Exposition  is  explanation.  It  will  help  to  appreciate 
the  importance  of  this  form  of  discourse  if  we  notice 
how  commonly  it  is  used.  We  at  once  think  of  text- 
books and  works  on  science  and  philosophy  as  exposi- 
tory. But  such  works  constitute  only  a  small  part  of 
expository  literature.  Even  the  story  abounds  in  ex- 
planations of  situations,  in  reflections  upon  the  actions 
of  the  characters,  and  in  interpretations  of  their  actions 
and  their  sayings.  Newspaper  editorials  are  wholly 
expository,  while  fully  half  of  what  we  call  "news"  is 
of  the  same  class.  When  the  traveling  salesman  and 
the  clerk  behind  the  counter  attempt  to  sell  goods,  they 
use  exposition;  when  the  office  clerks  write  business 
letters  they  are  likewise  expository.  The  preacher,  the 
lecturer,  the  teacher,  and  the  lawyer,  all  use  more 
expository  discourse  than  of  all  the  other  kinds  com- 
bined. Even  in  ordinary  conversation  the  same  holds 
true.  Whenever  one  answers  questions  beginning  with 
"how"  or  "why,"  he  uses  exposition.  It  is  the  most 
practical  form  of  discourse. 

The  nature  of  exposition  will  be  better  understood 
if  we  compare  it  with  the  other  forms  of  discourse. 
Narration  deals  with  things  in  motion  and  in  terms  of 

326 


EXPOSITION  327 

time;  description  deals  largely  with  things  at  rest,  and 
in  terms  of  space.  Narration  and  description  both  deal 
with  things  that  can  be  seen,  heard,  smelled,  touched, 
and  emotionally  felt;  exposition  concerns  itself  with  the 
unseen  and  the  abstract.  Narration  and  description 
appeal  to  the  senses  and  to  the  emotions;  exposition 
appeals  to  the  intellect.  The  chief  function  of  exposi- 
tion is  to  remove  ignorance,  to  give  information,  to  solve 
problems.  Accuracy,  clearness,  and  completeness  must 
always  characterize  the  finished  product  of  exposition. 

The  difference  between  description  and  exposition 
will  be  readily  appreciated  by  comparing  the  following 
two  paragraphs : 

"The  cottage  and  its  gardens  were  so  regular 
in  their  arrangement  that  they  might  have 
been  laid  out  by  a  Dutch  designer  of  the  time 
of  William  and  Mary.  In  a  low,  dense  hedge, 
cut  to  wedge  shape,  was  a  door  over  which  the 
hedge  formed  an  arch,  and  from  the  inside  of 
the  door  a  straight  path,  bordered  with  clipped 
box,  ran  up  the  slope  of  the  garden  to  the 
porch,  which  was  exactly  in  the  middle  of  the 
house,  with  two  windows  on  each  side.  Right 
and  left  of  the  path  were,  first,  a  bed  of  goose- 
berry bushes;  next,  of  current;  next,  of  rasp- 
berry; next,  of  old-fashioned  flowers;  at  the 
corners  opposite  the  porch  were  spheres  of  box 
resembling  a  pair  of  school  globes.  Over  the 
roof  of  the  house  could  be  seen  the  orchard,  on 
yet  higher  ground,  and  behind  the  orchard  the 
forest  trees,  reaching  up  to  the  crest  of  the 
hill." — The  Woodlanders:  Thomas  Hardy 


328  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

"  Method  is  of  advantage  to  a  work,  both 
in  respect  to  the  writer  and  the  reader.    In  re- 
gard to  the  first  it  is  a  great  help  to  his  inven- 
tion.   When  a  man  has  planned  his  discourse 
he  finds  a  great  many  thoughts  rising  out  of 
every  head  that  do  not  offer  themselves  upon 
the  general  survey  of  a  subject.    His  thoughts 
are  at  the  same  time  more  intelligible,  and 
better  discover  their  drift  and  meaning  when 
they  are  placed  in  their  proper  fights,  and  fol- 
low one  another  in  a  regular  series,  than  when 
they  are  thrown  together  without  order  and 
connection.    There  is  always  an  obscurity  in 
confusion,  and  the  same  sentence  that  would 
have  enlightened  the  reader  in  one  part  of  a 
discourse  perplexes  him  in  another.    For  the 
same  reason,  likewise,  every  thought  in  a  me- 
thodical discourse  shows  itself  in  its  greatest 
beauty,  as  the  several  figures  in  a  piece  of 
painting  receive  a  new  grace  from  their  dis- 
position in  the  picture.    The  advantages  of  a 
reader  from  a  methodical  discourse  are  corre- 
spondent with  those  of  the  writer.    He  com- 
prehends everything  easily,  takes  it  in  with 
pleasure,  and  retains  it  long." 

— Spectator  Paper  No.  476:  Addison 

In  the  two  examples  given  above  the  fundamental 
distinction  between  the  two  forms  is  sufficiently  marked 
to  leave  no  doubt.  The  first  is  to  show  how  a  place 
looks;  the  second  is  to  explain  the  advantages  of 
method  in  writing.  It  is  the  difference  in  purpose 
which  shows  the  distinction. 

There  are  many  cases,  however,  when  the  purpose  of 


EXPOSITION  329 

the  writer  seems  to  be  both  to  describe  and  to  explain, 
and  other  cases  when  one  cannot  be  sure  as  to  which 
of  the  two  purposes  predominates.  Even  the  best 
writers,  such  as  Thomas  Hardy,  abound  in  passages  of 
this  sort.  When  both  purposes  seem  to  have  been 
present  in  the  mind  of  the  writer  we  call  his  work  gen- 
eralized description,  or  expository  description.  The 
following  paragraph  from  Hardy's  The  Return  of  the 
Native  is  expository  description: 

"The  August  sun  shone  over  Egdon  and 
fired  its  crimson  heather  to  a  scarlet  glow.  It 
was  the  one  season  of  the  year,  and  the  one 
weather  of  the  season,  in  which  the  heath  was 
gorgeous.  This  flowering  period  represented 
the  second,  or  noontide  division,  in  the  cycle 
of  those  superficial  changes  which  alone  were 
possible  here;  it  followed  the  green  or  young 
fern  period  representing  the  morn,  and  pre- 
ceded the  brown  period,  when  the  heath  bells 
and  ferns  would  wear  the  russet  tinges  of  eve- 
ning, to  be  in  turn  displaced  by  the  dark  hue  of 
the  winter  period  representing  night.'' 

Another  fundamental  distinction  between  descrip- 
tion and  exposition  is  that  description  deals  with  par- 
ticular objects,  while  exposition  is  concerned  with 
groups  of  objects  taken  together  as  a  general  class. 
One  might  describe  a  game  of  football  so  as  to  make 
his  readers  see  how  that  particular  game  looked  as  it 
was  played,  and  the  result  would  be  description.  Or 
he  might  explain  the  game  of  football  so  that  his  readers 
could  understand  the  principles  of  the  game.     One 


330  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

cannot  fully  understand  the  game  by  witnessing  it 
once.  If  you  should  wish  to  instruct  another  concern- 
ing football,  the  natural  way  would  be  to  explain  it  to 
him  in  general  terms  and  then  take  him  to  see  a  game 
which  you  could  describe  to  him  in  particular  terms. 
Such  is  the  relation  between  description  and  exposition. 
The  relation  between  narration  and  exposition  is  not 
sufficiently  close  to  cause  much  confusion,  but  since 
narration  is  often  used  for  expository  purposes,  a  word 
of  explanation  is  necessary.  This  generalized,  or  ex- 
pository narration,  is  used  when  a  process  is  explained, 
by  noting  the  steps  in  chronological  order,  as  in  the 
following  account  of  making  a  smudge,  from  Henry  van 
Dyke's  Fisherman's  Luck: 

"  It  would  seem  as  if  it  ought  to  be  the 
simplest  affair  in  the  world  to  light  up  a 
smudge.     And  so  it  is — if  you  are  not  trying. 

"An  attempt  to  produce  almost  any  other 
kind  of  fire  will  bring  forth  smoke  abundantly. 
But  when  you  deliberately  undertake  to  create 
a  smudge,  flames  break  out  from  the  wettest 
timber,  and  green  moss  blazes  with  a  furious 
heat.  You  hastily  gather  handfuls  of  seem- 
ingly incombustible  material  and  throw  it  on 
the  fire,  but  the  conflagration  increases.  Grass 
and  leaves  hesitate  for  an  instant  and  then 
flash  up  like  tinder.  The  more  you  put  on 
the  more  your  smudge  rebels  against  its  proper 
task  of  smudging.  It  makes  a  pleasant 
warmth  to  encourage  the  black  flies;  and  a 
bright  light  to  attract  and  cheer  the  mos- 
quitoes.   Your  effort  is  a  brilliant  failure. 


EXPOSITION  331 

"The  proper  way  to  make  a  smudge  is  this: 
Begin  with  a  very  little,  lowly  fire.  Let  it  be 
bright,  but  not  ambitious.  Don't  try  to  make 
a  smoke  yet. 

"Then  gather  a  good  supply  of  stuff  which 
seems  likely  to  suppress  fire  without  smother- 
ing it.  Moss  of  a  certain  kind  will  do,  but  not 
the  soft,  feathery  moss  that  grows  so  deep 
among  the  spruce  trees.  Half-decayed  wood 
is  good;  spongy,  moist,  unpleasant  stuff,  a 
vegetable  wet  blanket.  The  bark  of  dead  ever- 
green trees,  hemlock,  spruce,  or  balsam,  is 
better  still.  Gather  a  plentiful  store  of  it. 
But  don't  try  to  make  a  smoke  yet. 

"Let  your  fire  burn  a  while  longer;  cheer  it 
up  a  little.  Get  some  clear,  resolute,  un- 
quenchable coals  aglow  in  the  heart  of  it. 
Don't  try  to  make  a  smoke  yet. 

"Now  pile  on  your  smoldering  fuel.  Fan 
it  with  your  hat.  Kneel  down  and  blow  it, 
and  in  ten  minutes  you  will  have  a  smoke  that 
will  make  you  wish  you  had  never  been  born. 

"That  is  the  proper  way  to  make  a  smudge. 
But  the  easiest  way  is  to  ask  your  guide  to 
make  it  for  you." 

In  pure  narration  you  would  say  concerning  the  be- 
ginning of  a  game  of  football,  "Burton  kicked  off." 
In  generalized  narration  for  purposes  of  exposition, 
you  would  begin,  "Some  one  kicks  off." 

In  narration  we  relate  what  one  does  at  a  definite 
time;  in  expository  narration  we  generalize  and  tell 
what  he  does  habitually.  Note  the  following  general- 
ized narrative  from  Irving's  Abbotsford: 


332  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

"In  after  years,  when  Scott  began  to  turn  this  local 
knowledge  to  literary  account,  he  revisited  many  of 
those  scenes  of  his  early  ramblings,  and  endeavored  to 
secure  the  fugitive  remains  of  the  traditions  and  song 
that  had  charmed  his  boyhood.  When  collecting  ma- 
terials for  his  Border  Minstrelsy  he  used,  he  said,  to  go 
from  cottage  to  cottage  and  make  the  old  wives  re- 
peat all  they  knew,  if  but  two  lines;  and  by  putting 
these  scraps  together  he  retrieved  many  a  fine,  char- 
acteristic old  ballad  or  tradition  from  oblivion." 

The  next  excerpt  from  Franklin's  Autobiography  is 
also  narrative  in  form  but  expository  in  effect: 

"In  the  conduct  of  my  newspaper  I  care- 
fully excluded  all  libelling  and  personal  abuse, 
which  has  of  late  years  become  so  disgraceful 
to  our  country.  Whenever  I  was  solicited  to 
insert  anything  of  that  kind,  and  the  writers 
pleaded,  as  they  generally  did,  the  liberty  of 
the  press,  and  that  a  newspaper  was  like  a 
stagecoach  in  which  anyone  who  would  pay 
had  a  right  to  a  place,  my  answer  was  that  I 
would  print  the  piece  separately  if  desired, 
and  the  author  might  have  as  many  copies  as 
he  desired,  to  distribute  himself,  but  that  I 
would  not  take  upon  me  to  spread  his  detrac- 
tion; and  that  having  contracted  with  my 
subscribers  to  furnish  them  with  what  might 
be  useful  or  entertaining,  I  could  not  fill  their 
papers  with  private  altercation,  in  which  they 
had  no  concern,  without  doing  them  manifest 
injustice.  Now,  many  of  our  printers  make 
no  scruple  of  gratifying  the  malice  of  individ- 


EXPOSITION  333 

uals  by  false  accusations  of  the  fairest  charac- 
ters among  ourselves,  augmenting  animosity 
even  to  the  producing  of  duels ;  and  are,  more- 
over, so  indiscreet  as  to  print  scurrilous  re- 
flections on  the  government  of  neighboring 
states,  and  even  on  the  conduct  of  our  best 
national  allies,  which  may  be  attended  with 
the  most  pernicious  consequences.  These 
things  I  mention  as  a  caution  to  young  print- 
ers, and  that  they  may  be  encouraged  not  to 
pollute  their  presses  and  disgrace  their  pro- 
fession by  such  infamous  practices,  but  refuse 
steadily,  as  they  may  see  by  my  example  that 
such  a  course  of  conduct  will  not,  on  the  whole, 
be  injurious  to  their  interests." 

Exposition  and  Argumentation.  Exposition  and 
argumentation  are  closely  akin.  They  are  alike  in  that 
both  give  information;  they  differ  in  that  exposition 
gives  information  upon  subjects  concerning  which  there 
is  little  or  no  difference  of  opinion,  while  argumentation 
deals  with  disputed  matters.  Like  exposition,  argu- 
mentation seeks  to  instruct;  but  it  goes  further  and 
endeavors  to  secure  agreement  where  there  is  a  dif- 
ference of  opinion.  As  we  shall  see  in  the  chapter  dn 
argumentation,  exposition  plays  an  important  part  in 
formal  argumentation.  The  introduction  of  a  brief  is 
always  wholly  expository. 

The  exposition  just  given  reveals  the  fact  that  each 
of  the  forms  of  discourse  shades  into  each  of  the  others 
and  is  used  to  aid  the  others  in  making  the  finished 
product  of  composition  effective  and  interesting.     From 


334  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

this  we  may  infer,  further,  that  the  division  of  all  dis- 
course into  the  four  forms — narration,  description, 
exposition,  and  argumentation — is  but  an  academic 
device  to  aid  in  understanding  the  whole  subject  better 
than  would  be  possible  without  such  subdivision  and 
analysis. 

Definition  of  Exposition.  In  defining  exposition  we 
must  remember  that  in  the  broad  sense  it  includes  all 
the  other  forms  of  discourse  when  they  are  used  more 
to  appeal  to  the  intellect  than  to  the  senses  and  emo- 
tions; when  they  are  employed  in  more  of  a  scientific 
than  in  a  literary  sense.  The  illustrations  we  have 
used  will  aid  in  appreciating  this  fact.  Formal  exposi- 
tion aims  at  definite  knowledge  and  so  may  be  termed 
scientific.  In  this  restricted  sense  we  define  exposition 
as:  That  form  of  discourse  whose  purpose  is  to  satisfy 
the  intellect  concerning  such  abstract  and  generaj^ 
things  as  are  not  readily  perceived  by  the  senses. 
It  deals  with  the  qualities  and  the  nature  of  things, 
with  causes  and  results,  with  meaning  and  interpreta- 
tion, and  with  classification. 

The  following  quotation  from  Trench's  Study  of 
Words  is  both  a  good  example  of  exposition  and  a 
valuable  appendix  to  our  chapter  on  Diction:  "What 
a  wealth  of  words  in  almost  every  language  lies  inert 
and  unemployed;  and  certainly  not  least  in  our  own. 
How  much  of  what  might  be  as  current  coin  among  us, 
is  shut  up  in  the  treasure-house  of  a  few  classical 
authors,  or  is  never  to  be  met  with  at  all  but  in  the 
columns  of  the  dictionary,  we  meanwhile,  in  the  midst 


EXPOSITION  335 

of  all  this  riches,  adjudging  ourselves  to  a  voluntary 
poverty;  and  often,  with  tasks  the  most  delicate  and 
difficult  to  accomplish — for  surely  the  clothing  of 
thought  in  its  most  appropriate  garment  of  words  is 
such — needlessly  depriving  ourselves  of  a  large  portion 
of  the  helps  at  our  command;  like  some  workman  who, 
being  furnished  for  an  operation  that  will  challenge  all 
his  skill  with  a  dozen  different  tools,  each  adapted  for 
its  own  special  purpose,  should  in  his  indolence  and 
self-conceit  persist  in  using  only  one;  doing  carelessly 
what  might  have  been  done  finely;  or  leaving  alto- 
gether undone  that  which,  with  such  assistances,  was 
quite  within  his  reach.  And  thus  it  comes  to  pass 
that  in  the  common  intercourse  of  life,  often,  too,  in 
books,  a  certain  limited  number  of  words  are  worked 
almost  to  death,  employed  in  season  and  out  of  season 
— a  vast  multitude  meanwhile  being  rarely,  if  at  all, 
called  to  render  the  service  which  they  could  render 
far  better  than  any  other;  so  rarely,  indeed,  that  little 
by  little  they  slip  out  of  sight  and  are  forgotten  al- 
together. And  then,  perhaps,  at  some  later  day  when 
their  want  is  felt,  the  ignorance  into  which  we  have 
allowed  ourselves  to  fall,  of  the  resources  offered  by  the 
language  to  satisfy  new  demands,  sends  us  abroad  in 
search  of  outlandish  substitutes  for  words  which  we 
already  possess  at  home.  It  was,  no  doubt,  to  avoid 
so  far  as  possible  such  an  impoverishment  of  the  lan- 
guage w*hich  he  spoke  and  wrote,  for  the  feeding  of  his 
own  speech  with  words  capable  of  serving  him  well,  but 
in  danger  of  falling  quite  out  of  his  use,  that  the  great 


336  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

Lord  Chatham  had,  as  we  are  told,  Bailey's  Dictionary, 
the  best  of  his  time,  twice  read  to  him  throughout." 

Note  how  the  above  passage  satisfies  the  definition 
of  exposition;  how  it  deals  with  the  qualities  of  the 
man  of  small  vocabulary,  the  cause  and  effect  of  his 
condition,  and  the  interpretation  of  the  case  so  as  to 
point  a  lesson  against  falling  into  such  a  state. 

The  Means  of  Exposition.  There  are  two  means  of 
exposition:  by  definition  and  by  analysis.  Single 
words  are  usually  explained  by  definition;  proposi- 
tions by  analysis.  Definition  is  of  two  kinds:  by 
synonym  and  by  definition  proper. 

Exposition  by  Synonym.  The  simplest  method  of 
defining  a  single  term  is  by  giving  a  synonym  of  it. 
While  this  method  is  not  sufficient  where  exactness  is 
sought,  it  often  suffices  for  ordinary  purposes.  Care 
must  be  taken,  however,  to  use  a  synonym  that  is 
more  easily  comprehended  than  the  word  which  it 
explains.  For  example,  the  word  exposition  is  not  so 
common  as  the  word  explanation,  hence  to  say  that 
exposition  is  explanation  gives  a  brief  and  fairly 
adequate  idea  of  the  meaning  of  exposition.  So  we 
say,  "to  amputate  is  to  cut  off/'  "sclerosis  is  a  harden- 
ing," and  the  like.  This  method  is  common  in  con- 
versation; rare  in  formal  discourse.  Even  in  conver- 
sation it  should  be  used  with  caution,  for  synonymous 
words  never  mean  exactly  the  same,  but  something 
similar.  The  proper  use  of  synonyms  is  to  give  shades 
of  meaning  and  not  to  serve  as  a  substitute  for 
definitions. 


EXPOSITION  237 

Exposition  by  Definition.  The  best  method  of  ex- 
plaining single  words  is  by  definition.  It  is  the  syn- 
thetic method,  setting  the  limits  of  the  meaning  of  a 
word.  When  this  is  done  informally,  some  of  the  limits 
are  set  and  the  word  is  sufficiently  identified  for 
ordinary  purposes.  Hence,  to  say,  "  exposition  ap- 
peals to  the  intellect"  differentiates  it  from  narration 
and  description;  it  is  not  sufficient  to  afford  a  working 
basis  in  writing  exposition.  The  formal,  logical  def- 
inition is  alone  adequate  for  precision. 

The  formal  definition  consists  of  three  distinct 
parts:  the  term  to  be  defined,  the  general  class 
to  which  it  belongs,  and  its  distinguishing  char- 
acteristics. There  is  little  difficulty,  as  a  rule,  with 
the  first  two  parts  of  the  definition  if  one  uses 
moderate  care.  Precision,  however,  is  necessary  in 
selecting  such  characteristics  of  the  term  to  be  defined 
as  will  differentiate  it  from  other  members  of  the  same 
general  class.  Take,  for  instance,  the  definition  of 
description:  "Description  is  that  form  of  discourse 
by  means  of  which  a  writer  or  speaker  seeks  to  produce 
the  same  objects  upon  the  senses  and  emotions  of 
others,  which  observation,  experience,  and  the  use  of 
the  imagination  have  produced  upon  him."  Description 
is  the  term  defined;  discourse  indicates  the  general 
class  of  forms  to  which  it  belongs.  "By  means  of 
which  a  writer  or  speaker  seeks  to  produce  the  same 
effects  upon  the  senses  and  emotions  of  others,  which 
observation,  experience,  and  the  use  of  the  imagination 
have  produced  upon  him,"  constitute  the  characteris- 


338  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

tics  wherein  description  differs  from  the  other  forms  of 
discourse. 

Enough  characteristics  must  be  selected  to  dis- 
tinguish the  term  from  other  members  of  its  class. 
The  word  defined  must  never'  be  used  in  giving  the 
distinguishing  characteristics,  nor  should  any  word  be 
used  which  is  so  difficult  as  to  need  definition  itself. 

In  ordinary  exposition  informal  and  imperfect  defini- 
tions are  far  more  common  than  strictly  logical  ones. 
This  is  seen  in  the  case  of  exposition  by  repetition 
where  a  series  of  imperfect  definitions  is  given.  It  is 
very  effective.  It  drives  the  meaning  home  to  the 
reader  until,  with  all  its  rephrasing  and  reiteration,  it 
gains  a  cumulative  effect  that  is  irresistible.  Its  ad- 
vantages are  clearness  and  emphasis.  Such  exposition, 
though  classed  under  the  heading  of  definition,  also 
partakes  partly  of  the  nature  of  exposition  by  analysis, 
to  be  considered  later,  for  the  large  number  of  distin- 
guishing characteristics  given  has  the  effect  of  an 
analysis.  Such  exposition  requires  a  whole  paragraph 
and  the  following  from  Charles  Lamb's  Poor  Relations 
is  a  capital  illustration : 

"A  poor  relation — is  the  most  irrelevant  thing  in 
nature, — a  piece  of  impertinent  correspondency, — an 
odious  approximation, — a  haunting  conscience, — a  pre- 
posterous shadow,  lengthening  in  the  noontide  of  your 
prosperity, — an  unwelcome  remembrancer, — a  per- 
petually recurring  mortification, — a  drain  on  your 
purse, — a  more  intolerable  dun  upon  your  pride, — a 
drawback  upon  success, — a  rebuke  to  your  rising, — a 


EXPOSITION  339 

stain  in  your  blood, — a  blot  on  your  'scutcheon, — a  rent 
in  your  garment, — a  death's  head  at  your  banquet, — 
Agathocles'  pot, — a  Mordicai  at  your  gate, — a  frog  in 
your  chamber, — a  fly  in  your  ointment, — a  mote  in 
your  eye, — a  triumph  to  your  enemy, — an  apology  to 
your  friends, — the  one  thing  not  needful, — the  hail  in 
the  harvest, — the  ounce  of  sour  in  a  pound  of  sweet." 

Brief  expositions,  such  as  require  more  than  a  single 
sentence  and  not  more  than  a  single  paragraph,  furnish 
the  best  illustrations  both  of  the  kinds  of  paragraph 
development  and  the  methods  of  exposition,  for  it  is  in 
exposition  that  the  paragraph  is  seen  in  its  purest 
form.  The  illustration  given  above,  and  repeated 
from  the  chapter  on  the  paragraph,  shows  this. 

The  following  paragraph  from  Macaulay's  Essay  on 
Addison  is  developed  by  enumerating  a  number  of  de- 
tails explaining  how  the  spectator  trained  himself  in 
college,  by  travel,  and  by  showing  how  he  spent  his 
time. 

"The  spectator  himself  was  conceived  and 
drawn  by  Addison,  and  it  is  not  easy  to  doubt 
that  the  portrait  was  meant  to  be  in  some 
features  a  likeness  of  the  painter.  The  spec- 
tator is  a  gentleman  who,  after  passing  a 
studious  youth  at  the  university,  has  trav- 
eled on  classic  ground,  and  has  bestowed  much 
attention  on  curious  points  of  antiquity.  He 
has,  on  his  return,  fixed  his  residence  in  Lon- 
don, and  has  observed  all  the  forms  of  fife 
which  are  to  be  found  in  that  great  city;  has 
daily  listened  to  the  wits  at  Will's;  has  smoked 


340  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

with  the  philosophers  at  the  Grecian,  and  has 
mingled  with  the  parsons  at  Child's,  and  with 
the  politicians  at  St.  James's.  In  the  morning 
he  often  listens  to  the  hum  of  the  Exchange; 
in  the  evening  his  face  is  constantly  to  be  seen 
in  the  pit  of  the  Drury  Lane  Theater.  But 
an  insurmountable  bashfulness  prevents  him 
from  opening  his  mouth,  except  in  a  small 
circle  of  intimate  friends." 

The  next  paragraph,  developed  by  a  series  of  illus- 
trations of  the  truth  of  the  statement  made  in  the  topic 
sentence,  is  an  equally  good  example  of  exposition  by 
means  of  illustrations. 

"I  have  said  that  poetry  and  imagination 
seek  to  penetrate  everywhere;  and  this  is 
literally  true,  for  even  the  hardest,  austerest 
studies  cannot  escape  their  influence;  they 
will  put  something  of  their  own  life  into  the 
dry  bones  of  a  nomenclature  which  seems  the 
remotest  from  them,  the  most  opposed  to 
them.  Thus  in  Danish  the  male  and  female 
lines  of  descent  and  inheritance  are  called 
respectively  the  sword-side  and  the  spindle- 
side.  He  who  in  prosody  called  the  metrical 
foot,  consisting  of  one  long  syllable  followed 
by  two  short,  a  dactyl  or  a  finger,  with  the 
allusion  to  the  long  first  joint  of  the  finger, 
and  the  two  shorter  which  follow,  whoever  he 
may  have  been — and  some  one  was  the  first 
to  do  it — must  be  allowed  to  have  brought  a 
certain  amount  of  imagination  into  a  study  so 
I  alien  to  it  as  prosody  very  well  might  appear." 
— On  the  Study  of  Words:  Trench 


EXPOSITION  341 

Note  again  how  the  truth  stated  in  the  topic  sen- 
tence is  developed  and  illustrated  by  giving  examples : 

"New  necessities,  new  evolutions  of  society 
into  more  complex  conditions,  evoke  new 
words;  which  come  forth,  because  they  are 
required  now;  but  did  not  formerly  exist,  be- 
cause in  an  anterior  period  they  were  not  re- 
quired. For  example,  in  Greece,  so  long  as 
the  poet  sang  his  own  verses,  singer  suffi- 
ciently expressed  the  double  function;  such  a 
singer  was  Homer,  and  such  Homer  describes 
Demodoccus,  the  bard  of  the  Phseacians;  that 
double  function,  in  fact,  not  being  in  his  time 
contemplated  as  double,  but  each  of  its  parts 
so  naturally  completing  the  other  that  no  sec- 
ond word  was  required.  When,  however,  in 
the  decision  of  labor,  one  made  the  verses 
which  another  chanted,  then  poet  or  maker,  a 
word  unknown  to  the  Homeric  age,  arose.  In 
like  manner,  when  physicians  were  the  only 
natural  philosophers,  the  word  covered  this 
meaning  as  well  as  that  other  which  it  still 
retains;  but  when  the  investigation  of  nature 
and  natural  causes  detached  itself  from  the 
art  of  healing,  became  an  independent  study, 
the  name  physician  remained  to  that  which 
was  the  stock  and  stem  of  the  art,  while  the 
new  offshoot  sought  out  and  obtained  a  new 
name  for  itself.'' — Study  of  W ords:  Trench 

The  following  paragraph,  developed  by  comparison, 
also  illustrates  the  method  of  comparison  as  a  means 
of  exposition.  The  effectiveness  of  such  a  method  is 
in  the  fact  that  light  is  thrown  upon  two  subjects  at 


342  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

the  same  time,  thus  affording  a  double  chance  of  arous- 
ing interest.  In  the  comparison  between  Dickens  and 
Thackeray,  for  instance,  an  admirer  of  Dickens  or 
an  admirer  of  Thackeray  is  sure  to  be  interested, 
while  an  admirer  of  both  will  be  doubly  interested. 
Notice  how  the  comparison  helps  to  understand  both 
writers : 

"It  is  natural  that  men  should  compare 
Dickens  and  Thackeray;  but  the  two  will  be 
found  to  be  curiously  unlike  when  once  a  cer- 
tain superficial  resemblance  ceases  to  impress 
the  mind.  Their  ways  of  treating  a  subject 
were  not  only  dissimilar,  but  were  absolutely 
in  contrast.  They  started,  to  begin  with, 
under  the  influence  of  a  totally  different  phil- 
osophy of  life,  if  that  is  to  be  called  a  philoso- 
phy which  was  probably  only  the  result  of 
peculiarity  of  temperament  in  each  case. 
Dickens  set  out  on  the  literary  theory  that  in 
life  everything  is  better  than  in  books;  Thack- 
eray with  the  impression  that  it  is  worse.  In 
the  one  case  there  was  something  too  much 
of  a  mechanical  interpretation  of  everything 
.  for  the  best  in  the  best  possible  world;  in  the 
other  the  savor  of  cynicism  was  at  times  a 
little  annoying.  As  each  writer  went  on,  the 
peculiarity  became  more  and  more  a  manner- 
ism. The  popularity  of  Dickens  was  in  a  great 
measure  due  to  the  fact  that  he  set  forth  life 
in  cheerful  fight  and  colors.  He  had,  of  course, 
gifts  of  a  far  higher  artistic  value;  he  could 
describe  anything  that  he  saw  with  a  fidelity 
which  Balzac  could  not  have  surpassed;   but 


EXPOSITION  345 

it  must  be  owned  that  if  Dickens's  peculiar 
" philosophy''  were  effaced  from  his  works, 
the  fame  of  the  author  would  remain  a  very 
different  thing  from  what  it  is  at  the  present 
moment.  On  the  other  hand,  it  would  be  pos- 
sible to  cut  out  of  Thackeray  all  his  little  cyni- 
cal, melancholy  sentences,  and  reduce  his 
novels  to  bare  descriptions  of  life  and  charac- 
ter, without  effecting  in  any  sensible  degree 
his  influence  on  the  reader  or  his  position  in 
literature.  Thackeray  had  a  marvelously  keen 
appreciation  of  human  motive  and  character 
within  certain  limits,  while  Dickens  had  little 
or  no  knowledge  of  human  character,  and  evi- 
dently cared  very  little  about  the  study.  His 
stories  are  fairy  tales  made  credible  by  the 
masterly  realism  with  which  he  described  all 
the  surroundings  and  accessories,  the  costumes 
and  the  ways  of  his  men  and  women. .  .  .  Thus 
it  will  be  seen  that  these  two  eminent  authors 
had  not  only  different  ideas  about  life,  but 
absolutely  contrasting  principles  of  art.  One 
worked  from  the  externals  inward;  the  other 
realized  the  unseen,  and  left  the  externals  to 
grow  for  themselves.  Two  peculiarities,  how- 
ever, they  shared.  Each  lived  and  wrote  of 
and  for  London.  Dickens  created  for  art  the 
London  of  the  middle  and  lower  classes; 
Thackeray  did  the  same  for  the  London  of 
the  upper  class,  and  for  those  who  strive  to 
imitate  their  ways.  Neither  ever  even  at- 
tempted to  describe  a  man  kept  constantly 
above  and  beyond  the  atmosphere  of  mere 
egotism  by  some  sustaining  greatness  or  even 
intensity    of    purpose.      In    Dickens,    as    in 


344  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

Thackeray,  the  emotions  described  are  those 
of  conventional  life  merely.  But  to  paint  the 
manners  of  a  day  and  a  class  as  Dickens  and 
Thackeray  have  done,  is  to  deserve  fame  and 
the  gratitude  of  prosperity.  The  age  must 
claim  a  high  place  in  art  which  could  in  one 
department  alone  produce  two  such  com- 
petitors. Their  effect  upon  their  time  was 
something  marvelous.  People  talked  Dickens 
or  thought  Thackeray.  "—Justin  McCaethy 

Closely  connected  with  the  method  of  comparison  is 
that  of  contrasts.  The  quotation  just  given  partially 
illustrates  the  uses  of  contrasts  along  with  a  series  of 
comparisons.  The  following,  from  Charles  Lamb's 
The  Superannuated  Man,  however,  will  serve  further 
to  show  how  effective  a  series  of  contrasts  may  be  made. 
Lamb  shows  by  a  series  of  contrasts  between  his  con- 
dition before  and  after  he  became  a  superannuated 
man,  what  a  great  change  had  taken  place.  It  is  an 
effective  method  of  exposition. 

"For  the  first  day  or  two  I  felt  stunned, 
overwhelmed.  I  could  only  apprehend  my 
felicity;  I  was  too  confused  to  take  it  sin- 
cerely. I  wandered  about,  thinking  I  was 
happy,  and  knowing  I  was  not.  I  was  in  the 
condition  of  a  prisoner  in  the  old  Bastile  sud- 
denly let  loose  after  forty  years  of  confinement. 
I  could  scarce  trust  myself  with  myself.  It 
was  like  passing  out  of  Time  into  Eternity — 
for  it  was  a  sort  of  Eternity  for  a  man  to  have 
his  time  all  to  himself.  It  seemed  to  me  that 
I  had  more  time  on  my  hands  than  I  could 


EXPOSITION  345 

manage.  From  a  poor  boy,  poor  in  time,  I 
was  suddenly  lifted  up  into  a  vast  revenue;  I 
could  see  no  end  of  my  possessions ;  I  wanted 
some  steward,  or  judicious  bailiff,  to  manage 
my  estates  in  Time  for  me.  And  here  let  me 
caution  persons  growing  old  in  business,  not 
lightly,  nor  without  weighing  their  resources, 
to  forego  their  customary  employment  all  at 
once,  for  there  may  be  danger  in  it.  I  feel  it 
by  myself,  but  I  know  that  my  resources  are 
sufficient;  and,  now  that  those  first  giddy  rap- 
tures have  subsided,  I  have  a  quiet  home  feel- 
ing of  the  blessedness  of  my  condition.  I  am 
in  no  hurry.  Having  all  holidays,  I  am  as 
though  I  had  none.  If  time  hung  heavy  upon 
me,  I  could  walk  it  away;  but  I  do  not  walk 
all  day  long  as  I  used  to  do  in  those  old  tran- 
sient holidays — thirty  miles  a  day,  to  make 
the  most  of  them.  If  Time  were  troublesome 
I  could  read  it  away,  but  I  do  not  read  in  that 
violent  measure  with  which,  having  no  time 
but  my  own  candlelight  time,  I  used  to  weary 
out  my  head  and  eyesight  in  bygone  winters. 
I  walk,  read,  or  scribble  (as  now)  just  when 
the  fit  seizes  me.  I  no  longer  hunt  after  pleas- 
ure; I  let  it  come  to  me.    I  am  like  the  man 

"'That's  born,  and  has  his  years  come  to  him, 
In  some  green  desert.'" 

Exposition  by  the  method  of  giving  causes  or  effects 
is  very  near  argumentation  in  which  the  giving  of  proof 
is  the  principal  work  of  the  writer.  It  is  sufficiently 
differentiated  from  argumentation,  however,  to  deserve 
special  consideration  by  itself  as  a  part  of  exposition. 


346  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

In  the  following  quotation  the  first  sentence  is  given 
as  a  good  illustration  of  the  use  of  the  last  sentence  of 
a  paragraph  to  summarize  its  meaning  and  indicate  the 
transition  to  the  next  paragraph.  The  complete  para- 
graph is  developed  by  the  method  of  giving  a  series  of 
reasons  for  the  truth  of  the  statement  made  in  the  topic 
sentence,  Addison  is  the  Spectator. 

"We  say  this  of  Addison  alone;  for  Addison 
is  the  Spectator.  About  three  sevenths  of 
the  work  are  his ;  and  it  is  no  exaggeration  to 
say  that  his  worst  essay  is  as  good  as  the  best 
essay  of  any  of  his  coadjutors.  His  best 
essays  approach  near  to  absolute  perfection; 
nor  is  their  excellence  more  wonderful  than 
their  variety.  His  invention  never  seems  to 
flag;  nor  is  he  ever  under  the  necessity  of  re- 
peating himself  or  of  wearing  out  a  subject. 
There  are  no  dregs  in  his  wine.  He  regales  us 
after  the  fashion  of  that  prodigal  nabob  who 
held  that  there  was  only  one  glass  of  wine  in  a 
bottle.  As  soon  as  we  have  tasted  the  first 
sparkling  foam  of  a  jest,  it  is  withdrawn,  and  a 
fresh  draft  of  nectar  is  at  our  lips.  On  the 
Monday  we  have  an  allegory  as  lively  and 
ingenious  as  Lucian's  Auction  of  Lives;  on  the 
Tuesday  an  Eastern  apologue,  as  richly  colored 
as  The  Tales  of  Scheherezade;  on  the  Wednesday 
a  character  described  with  the  skill  of  La 
Bruyere;  on  the  Thursday  a  scene  from  com- 
mon life,  equal  to  the  best  chapters  in  The 
Vicar  of  Wakefield;  on  the  Friday  some  sly 
Horatian  pleasantry  on  fashionable  follies, 
on    hoops,    on    patches,    on   puppet    shows; 


EXPOSITION  347 

and  on  the  Saturday  a  religious  meditation, 
which  will  bear  comparison  with  the  finest 
passages  in  Massillon." 

— Essay  on  Addison:  Macaulay 


The  next  paragraph  illustrates  the  method  of 
exposition  by  giving  a  series  of  effects  of  the  statement 
made  in  the  topic  sentence :  "  Clarissa  is  one  of  the  most 
sympathetic,  as  she  is  one  of  the  most  lifelike,  of  all 
the  women  in  literature." 

"By  the  universal  acknowledgment  of 
novel  readers,  Clarissa  is  one  of  the  most 
sympathetic,  as  she  is  one  of  the  most  lifelike, 
of  all  the  woman  in  literature,  and  Richardson 
has  conducted  her  story  with  so  much  art  and 
tact,  that  her  very  faults  canonize  her,  and  her 
weakness  crowns  the  triumph  of  her  chastity. 
In  depicting  the  character  of  Lovelace,  the 
novelist  had  a  difficult  task,  for  to  have  made 
him  a  mere  ruffian  would  have  been  to  ruin 
the  whole  purpose  of  the  piece.  He  is  repre- 
sented as  witty,  versatile,  adroit,  the  very 
type  of  the  unscrupulous  gentleman  of  fashion 
of  the  period.  He  expiates  his  crimes,  at  the 
close  of  a  capital  duel,  by  the  hands  of  Colonel 
Morden,  a  relative  of  the  Harlowe  family,  who 
has  seen  Clarissa  die.  The  success  of  Clarissa, 
both  here  and  in  France,  was  extraordinary. 
As  the  successive  volumes  appeared,  and 
readers  were  held  in  suspense  as  to  the  fate 
of  the  exquisite  heroine,  Richardson  was  del- 
uged with  letters  entreating  him  to  have 
mercy.  The  women  of  England  knelt  sob- 
bing around  his  knees,  and  addressed  him  as 


348  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

though  he  possessed  the  power  of  life  and 
death." 

— History  of   English  Literature:    Eighteenth  Century: 
Edmund  Gosse 

Special  Forms  of  Exposition.  Thus  far  our  considera- 
tion of  exposition  has  been  general.  We  have  dealt 
with  the  nature  of  exposition  and  the  methods  of 
securing  the  best  results.  We  now  consider  some  of 
the  special  purposes  for  which  exposition  is  used  and 
the  forms  suitable  for  those  purposes.  Study  the 
following  explanations  of  these  forms  and  the  accom- 
panying illustrations  until  you  can  produce  each  form 
yourself. 

Exposition  of  a  Situation  in  a  Story.  At  the  beginning 
of  a  story  and  often  during  the  narration  of  it  the 
author  must  explain  the  various  situations  in  which 
his  characters  act  out  their  parts.  The  more  intimate 
the  character  study,  the  more  must  the  situations  which 
affect  the  characters  be  explained.  For  instance,  in 
Thomas  Hardy's  Return  of  the  Native,  Egdon  Heath 
plays  such  an  important  part  in  the  story,  more 
important  than  that  of  any  one  character,  that  the 
author  devotes  the  entire  first  chapter  to  exposition 
of  the  meaning  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  heath  before 
he  introduces  the  characters  in  the  second  chapter. 
We  quote  from  the  early  paragraphs  to  illustrate  how 
such  exposition  is  used  by  a  master  writer.  Note 
how  it  gives  the  background  of  the  story  its  due 
prominence  and  also  serves  to  create  the  atmosphere 
of  the  tragedy: 


EXPOSITION  349 

"A  Saturday  afternoon  in  November  was 
approaching  the  time  of  twilight,  and  the 
vast  tract  of  unenclosed  wild  known  as 
Egdon  Heath  embrowned  itself  moment  after 
moment.  Overhead,  the  hollow  stretch  of 
whitish  cloud  shutting  out  the  sky  was  as  a 
tent  which  had  the  whole  heath  for  its  floor. 

"The  heaven  being  spread  with  this  pallid 
screen,  the  earth  with  the  swarthiest  of  vegeta- 
tion, their  closing  line  at  the  horizon  was 
clearly  marked.  In  such  a  contrast  the 
heath  wore  the  appearance  of  an  installment 
of  night,  which  had  taken  up  its  place  before 
its  astronomical  hour  was  come;  darkness 
had  to  a  great  extent  arrived  hereon,  while 
day  stood  distinct  in  the  sky.  Looking  up- 
ward, a  furze  cutter  would  have  been  inclined 
to  continue  work;  looking  down,  he  would 
have  decided  to  finish  his  fagot  and  go  home. 
The  meeting  rims  of  the  world  and  of  the  fir- 
mament seemed  to  be  a  division  in  time  no 
less  than  a  division  in  matter.  The  face  of 
the  heath  by  its  mere  complexion  added  half 
an  hour  to  eve ;  it  could  in  like  manner  retard 
the  dawn,  sadden  noon,  anticipate  the  frown- 
ing of  storms  scarcely  generated,  and  intensify 
the  opacity  of  a  moonless  midnight  to  a 
cause  of  shaking  and  dread. 

"In  fact,  precisely  at  this  transitional 
point  of  its  nightly  roll  into  darkness,  the 
great  and  particular  glory  of  Egdon,  waste 
began,  and  nobody  could  be  said  to  under- 
stand the  heath,  who  had  not  been  there  at 
such  a  time.  It  could  best  be  felt  when  it 
could  not  clearly  be  seen.     Its  completed  effect 


350  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

and  explanation  lay  in  this  and  the  succeeding 
hours  before  the  next  dawn;  then,  and  only 
then,  did  it  tell  its  true  tale.  The  spot  was 
indeed  a  close  relation  of  night ;  and  when  the 
night  was  beginning  to  draw  near,  a  certain 
tendency  to  gravitate  together  could  be  per- 
ceived between  its  shades  and  the  scene.  The 
somber  stretches  of  round  and  hollow  seemed 
to  rise  to  meet  the  evening  gloom  in  pure 
sympathy;  nay,  they  anticipated  its  livery, 
putting  on  the  obscurity  of  night  while  the 
upper  night  of  the  sky  was  still  far  in  the  dis- 
tance. First,  the  heath  exhaled  darkness; 
next,  the  heavens  precipitated  it.  The  ob- 
scurity in  the  air  and  the  obscurity  in  the 
land  then  closed  together  in  a  black  fraterniza- 
tion toward  which  each  advanced  halfway. 
"The  place  became  full  of  watchful  in- 
tentness  now.  When  other  things  sank  brood- 
ing to  sleep,  the  heath  appeared  slowly  to 
awaken  and  listen.  Every  night  its  Titanic 
form  seemed  thus  to  await  something.  What 
it  awaited  none  could  say.  It  had  waited  un- 
moved during  so  many  centuries,  through  the 
crises  of  so  many  other  things,  that  it  could 
only  be  imagined  to  await  one  last  crisis — 
the  final  overthrow."* 

The  effect  of  such  exposition,  which  possesses  some 
of  the  charm  of  impressionistic  description,  is  fully 
felt  when,  a  little  later,  the  characters  are  introduced 
in  such  a  way  as  to  make  them  blend  perfectly  with 
the  evening  upon  the  dark  Egdon  Heath. 

In  another  story  by  the  same  writer,  Far  from  the 


EXPOSITION  351 

Madding  Crowd,  we  find  the  following  exposition  which 
greatly  aids  us  in  appreciating  the  scene  which  im- 
mediately follows,  for  it  explains  the  situation  in  which 
Gabriel  Oak  finds  himself: 

"To  persons  standing  alone  on  a  hill  during 
a  clear  midnight  such  as  this,  the  roll  of  the 
world  eastward  is  almost  a  palpable  move- 
ment. The  sensation  may  be  caused  by  the 
panoramic  glide  of  the  stars  past  earthly  ob- 
jects, which  is  perceptible  in  a  few  minutes  of 
stillness,  or  by  a  fancy  that  the  better  out- 
look upon  space  afforded  by  a  hill  emphasizes 
terrestrial  revolution,  or  by  the  wind,  or  by 
the  solitude;  but  whatever  be  its  origin,  the 
impression  of  riding  along  is  vivid  and  abiding. 
The  poetry  of  motion  is  a  phrase  much  in 
use,  and  to  enjoy  the  epic  form  of  that 
gratification  it  is  necessary  to  stand  on  a  hill 
at  a  small  hour  of  the  night,  and,  first  enlarg- 
ing the  consciousness  with  a  sense  of  differ- 
ence from  the  mass  of  civilized  mankind,  who 
are  horizontal  and  disregardful  of  all  such 
proceedings  at  this  time,  long  and  quietly 
watch  your  stately  progress  through  the  stars. 
After  such  a  nocturnal  reconnoiter  among 
these  astral  clusters,  aloft  from  the  customary 
haunts  of  thought  and  vision,  some  men  may 
feel   raised   to    a    capacity    for    eternity    at 


For  a  further  illustration  of  the  use  of  such  expo- 
sition read  the  first  four  paragraphs  of  chapter  eleven 
of  Hardy's  The  Mayor  of  Casterbridge. 


352  ■  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

In  Thackeray's  Pendennis  we  find  the  following  use 
of  exposition  to  explain  a  situation.  It  is  typical  of 
many  such  passages  in  Thackeray,  where  he  pauses 
to  chat,  as  it  were,  with  the  reader: 

"In  these  speculations  and  confessions  of 
Arthur,  the  reader  may  perchance  see  allusions 
to  questions  which,  no  doubt,  have  occupied 
and  discomposed  himself,  and  which  he  may 
have  answered  by  very  different  solutions  to 
those  come  to  by  our  friend.  We  are  not 
pledging  ourselves  for  the  correctness  of  his 
opinions,  which  readers  will  please  to  consider 
are  delivered  dramatically,  the  writer  being 
no  more  answerable  for  them  than  for  the 
sentiments  uttered  by  any  other  character  of 
the  story;  our  endeavor  is  merely  to  follow 
out,  in  its  progress,  the  development  of  the 
mind  of  a  worldly  and  selfish,  but  not  ungen- 
erous or  unkind  or  truth-avoiding  man.  And 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  lamentable  stage  to 
which  his  logic  at  present  has  brought 
him  is  one  of  general  skepticism  and 
sneering  acquiescence  in  the  world  as  it  is; 
or,  if  you  like  so  to  call  it,  a  belief  qualified 
with  scorn  in  all  things  extant.  The  tastes 
and  habits  of  such  a  man  prevent  him  from 
being  a  boisterous  demagogue,  and  his  love 
of  truth  and  dislike  of  cant  keep  him  from 
advancing  crude  propositions,  such  as  many 
loud  reformers  are  constantly  ready  with; 
much  more  of  uttering  downright  falsehoods 
in  arguing  questions  or  abusing  opponents, 
which  he  would  die  or  starve  rather  than  use. 


EXPOSITION  353 

It  was  not  in  our  friend's  nature  to  be  able  to 
utter  certain  lies;  nor  was  he  strong  enough 
to  protest  against  others,  except  with  a  polite 
sneer,  his  maxim  being  that  he  owned  obedi- 
ence to  all  acts  of  parliament,  as  long  as  they 
were  not  repealed." 

Exposition  of  Character.  What  is  commonly  called 
a  " character  sketch"  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the 
description  of  a  character.  The  description  of  a 
character  is  to  tell  how  he  looks;  the  exposition  of 
character  goes  deeper  and  deals  with  one's  inner 
qualities  which  find  expression  in  his  habits.  Here,  as 
in  all  these  special  forms  of  exposition,  the  method 
used  is  to  be  determined  by  the  purpose  of  the  writer 
and  by  the  available  material.  Descriptions  of  people 
often  shade  off  into  character  sketches,  as  in  the  follow- 
ing of  Gabriel  Oak,  from  Far  from  the  Madding  Crowd: 

"When  Farmer  Oak  smiled  the  corners  of 
his  mouth  spread  till  they  were  within  an 
unimportant  distance  of  his  ears,  his  eyes 
were  reduced  to  mere  chinks,  and  diverging 
wrinkles  appeared  around  them,  extending 
upon  his  countenance  like  the  rays  of  a  rudi- 
mentary sketch  of  the  rising  sun. 

"His  Christian  name  was  Gabriel,  and  on 
working  days  he  was  a  young  man  of  sound 
judgment,  easy  motions,  proper  dress,  and 
general  good  character. 

"On  Sundays  he  was  a  man  of  misty  views, 
rather  given  to  postponing  treatment  of 
things,  whose  best  clothes  and  seven-and-six- 


354  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

penny  umbrella  were  always  hampering  him; 
upon  the  whole,  one  who  felt  himself  to  occupy 
morally  that  vast  middle  space  of  Laodicean 
neutrality  which  lay  between  the  sacrament 
people  of  the  parish  and  the  drunken  division 
of  its  inhabitants — that  is — he  went  to 
church,  but  yawned  privately  by  the  time 
the  congregation  reached  the  Nicene  Creed, 
and  thought  of  what  there  would  be  for  dinner 
when  he  meant  to  be  listening  to  the  sermon. 
Or,  to  state  his  character  as  it  stood  in  the 
scale  of  public  opinion,  when  his  friends  and 
critics  were  in  tantrums,  he  was  considered 
rather  a  bad  man;  when  they  were  pleased,  he 
was  rather  a  good  man;  when  they  were 
neither,  he  was  a  man  whose  moral  color  was 
a  kind  of  pepper-and-salt  mixture.  Since  he 
lived  six  times  as  many  working  days  as 
Sundays,  Oak's  appearance  in  his  old  clothes 
was  most  peculiarly  his  own — the  mental  pic- 
ture formed  by  his  neighbors  always  presenting 
him  as  dressed  in  that  way  when  their  imagina- 
tion answered  to  the  thought,  ' Gabriel  Oak.' 
He  wore  a  low-crowned  felt  hat  spread  out 
at  the  base  by  tight  jamming  upon  the  head 
for  security  in  high  winds,  and  a  coat  like 
Dr.  Johnson's,  his  lower  extremities  being 
encased  in  ordinary  leather,  leggings  and 
boots  emphatically  large,  affording  to  each 
foot  a  roomy  apartment  so  constructed  that 
any  wearer  might  stand  in  a  river  all  day  long 
and  know  nothing  about  it — their  maker  being 
a  conscientious  man  who  always  endeavored  to 
compensate  for  any  weakness  in  his  cut  by 
unstinted  dimension  and  solidity." 


EXPOSITION  355 

As  a  general  rule,  character  sketches  should  begin 
with  some  descriptive  touches  revealing  personal  ap- 
pearance; then  there  should  be  given  an  explanation 
of  the  mental  traits — intelligence,  cleverness,  shrewd- 
ness, penetration,  or  their  opposites — and  finally  the 
moral  qualities — honesty,  unselfishness,  charity,  sym- 
pathy, benevolence — in  a  word,  manliness  or  womanli- 
ness, or  their  opposites.  Note  the  following  from 
Dickens'  Oliver  Twist: 

"The  younger  lady  was  in  the  lovely  bloom 
and  springtime  of  womanhood;  at  that  age 
when,  if  ever  angels  be  for  God's  good  pur- 
poses enthroned  in  mortal  forms,  they  may 
be,  without  impiety,  supposed  to  abide  in  such 
as  hers. 

"She  was  not  past  seventeen.  Cast  in  so 
slight  and  exquisite  a  mold,  so  mild  and  gentle, 
so  pure  and  beautiful,  that  earth  seemed  not 
her  element,  nor  its  rough  creatures  her  fit 
companions.  The  very  intelligence  that  shone 
in  her  deep  blue  eye,  and  was  stamped  upon 
her  noble  head,  seemed  scarcely  of  her  age  or 
of  the  world ;  and  yet  the  changing  expression 
of  sweetness  and  good  humor,  the  thousand 
lights  that  played  about  the  face  and  left  no 
shadow  there;  above  all,  the  smile,  the  cheer- 
ful, happy  smile,  were  made  for  home,  for  fire- 
side peace  and  happiness. 

"She  was  busily  engaged  in  the  little  offices 
of  the  table.    Chancing  to  raise  her  eyes  as  the     , 
elder  lady  was  regarding  her,  she  playfully  put 
back  her  hair,  which  was  simply  braided  on  her 
forehead,  and  threw  into  one  beaming  look 


356  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

such  a  gush  of  affection  and  artless  loveliness 
that  blessed  spirits  might  have  smiled  to  look 
upon  her." 

Characterization  also  includes  whole  groups  of  peo- 
ple.   The  following  illustrates  this  form: 

"I  come  last  to  the  character  and  wa\s  of 
the  Americans  themselves,  in  which  there  is  a 
certain  charm,  hard  to  convey  by  description, 
but  felt  almost  as  soon  as  one  sets  foot  on  their 
shore,  and  felt  constantly  thereafter.  They 
are  a  kindly  people.  Good  nature,  heartiness, 
a  readiness  to  render  small  services  to  one 
another,  an  assumption  that  neighbors  in  the 
country,  or  persons  thrown  together  in  travel, 
or  even  in  a  crowd,  were  meant  to  be  friendly 
rather  than  hostile  to  one  another,  seem  to  be 
everywhere  in  the  air  and  in  those  who  breathe 
it.  Sociability  is  the  rule,  isolation  and  mo- 
roseness  the  rare  exception.  It  is  not  merely 
that  people  are  more  vivacious  and  talkative 
than  an  Englishman  expects  to  find  them,  for 
the  Western  man  is  often  taciturn  and  seldom 
wreathes  his  long  face  into  a  smile.  It  is 
rather  that  you  feel  that  the  man  next  you, 
whether  silent  or  talkative,  does  not  mean  to 
repel  intercourse,  or  convey  by  his  manner  his 
low  opinion  of  his  fellow  creatures.  Everybody 
seems  disposed  to  think  well  of  the  world  and 
its  inhabitants,  well  enough,  at  least,  to  wish 
to  be  on  easy  terms  with  them  in  those  little 
things  whose  trouble  to  the  doer  is  small  in 
proportion  to  the  pleasure  they  give  to  the 
receiver.    To  help  others  is  better  recognized 


EXPOSITION  357 

as  a  duty  than  in  Europe.  Nowhere  is  money 
so  readily  given  for  any  public  purpose;  no- 
where, I  suspect,  are  there  so  many  acts  of 
private  kindness  done — such,  for  instance,  as 
paying  the  college  expenses  of  a  promising  boy, 
or  aiding  a  widow  to  carry  on  her  husband's 
farm — and  these  are  not  done  with  ostenta- 
tion. People  seem  to  take  their  troubles  more 
lightly  than  they  do  in  Europe,  and  to  be  more 
indulgent  to  the  faults  by  which  the  troubles 
are  caused.  It  is  a  land  of  hope,  and  a  land  of 
hope  is  a  land  of  good  humor.  And  they  have 
also — though  this  is  a  quality  more  perceptible 
in  women  than  in  men — a  remarkable  faculty 
.  for  enjoyment,  a  power  of  drawing  more  hap- 
piness from  obvious  pleasures,  simple  and  in- 
nocent pleasures,  than  one  often  finds  in  over- 
burdened Europe." 

— The  American  Commonwealth:  James  Bryce 

The  Abstract.  One  of  the  commonest  and  most  use- 
ful forms  of  exposition  is  the  abstract.  It  is  a  sum- 
mary, a  resume,  a  boiling  down,  a  condensation  of  a 
longer  composition.  Whenever  you  report  a  conversa- 
tion, a  lecture,  or  a  sermon;  whenever  you  attempt  to 
tell  another  what  the  contents  of  a  book  are;  whenever 
you  write  out  an  examination  paper,  you  make  an 
abstract.  The  secret  of  success  in  making  a  good  ab- 
stract is  to  express  substantially  the  thought  of  whatever 
you  are  condensing  in  a  very  few  words.  To  do  this  with 
justice  to  the  writer  whose  exposition  you  are  sum- 
marizing, it  is  necessary  to  master  his  thought  as  a 
whole.     To  condense  each  paragraph  separately  will 


358  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

not  suffice.  It  may  be  necessary  to  reduce  a  whole 
group  of  paragraphs  to  a  single  sentence.  To  avoid 
giving  a  prejudiced  view  of  another's  longer  composi- 
tion, it  is  important  to  maintain  the  same  balance  and 
proportion  used  by  the  other  and  to  emphasize  what 
he  has  emphasized.  Lack  of  care  in  this  respect  de- 
feats the  purpose  of  writing  abstracts  and  gives  wholly 
wrong  impressions.  Honesty  of  purpose  must  go  hand 
in  hand  with  skill  in  making  the  summary  say  what  the 
longer  composition  does. 

After  mastering  the  line  of  thought  of  the  original 
composition,  make  a  careful  outline  of  the  thought, 
taking  special  care  to  discover  the  main  points  and  the 
proportionate  amount  of  space  devoted  to  each.  In 
general,  the  arrangement  of  the  main  headings  into 
paragraph  form  will  suffice.  If,  however,  you  are 
allowed  more  space,  you  may  use  minor  headings  and 
develop  them  briefly  under  their  proper  main  headings. 
Make  your  finished  product  a  real  exposition — not  a 
bare  outline.  Test  your  abstract  to  see  if  it  contains 
all  that  is  vital  in  the  original  and  to  see  if  the  pro- 
portion is  the  same. 

(A  helpful* practice  is  to  make  every  recitation  an 
exercise  in  abstract  making.  When  studying  a  lesson 
from  a  textbook  or  from  lecture  notes,  be  sure  that  you 
have  mastered  the  vital  points;  then  give  them  in  the 
recitation,  or  examination,  with  as  much  elaboration 
as  circumstances  will  permit.  Such  practice  will  also 
develop  one's  power  of  discrimination  and  enable  him 
to  evaluate  material  and  use  only  the  best.) 


EXPOSITION  359 

For  examples  of  abstracts  note  the  so-called  argu- 
ments at  the  beginning  of  the  several  books  of  Homer's 
Iliad,  synopses  of  preceding  chapters  of  serial  stories  in 
magazines  and  newspapers,  and  summaries  of  books  in 
histories  of  literature. 

In  Milton's  Comus  you  will  find  a  capital  illustration 
of  the  way  abstracts  are  made.  The  attendant  spirit, 
wishing  to  instruct  the  audience  concerning  the  en- 
chanter, Comus,  gives  a  complete  account  and  charac- 
terization of  him.  Later  in  the  masque  Milton  makes 
the  attendant  spirit  give  to  the  two  brothers  a  brief 
account  of  the  same  story.  In  the  first  instance  he  used 
thirty-two  lines;  in  the  latter  eleven.  Study  the  two 
and  note  how  the  latter  contains  the  essential  facts  of 
the  former,  but  fewer  details. 

u Bacchus,  that  first  from  out  the  purple  grape 
Crushed  the  sweet  poison  of  misused  wine, 
After  the  Tuscan  mariners  transformed, 
Coasting  the  Tyrrhene  shore,  as  the  winds  listed, 
On  Circe's  island  fell.     (Who  knows  not  Circe, 
The  daughter  of  the  Sun,  whose  charmed  cup 
Whoever  tasted  lost  his  upright  shape, 
And  downward  fell  into  a  grovelling  swine?) 
This  Nymph,  that  gazed  upon  his  clustering  locks, 
With  ivy-berries  wreathed,  and  his  blithe  youth, 
Had  by  him,  ere  he  parted  thence,  a  son 
Much  like  his  father,  but  his  mother  more, 
Whom  therefore  she  brought  up,  and  Comus  named: 
Who,  ripe  and  frolic  of  his  full-grown  age, 
Roving  the  Celtic  and  Iberian  fields, 
At  last  betakes  him  to  this  ominous  wood, 
And,  in  thick  shelter  of  black  shades  imbowered, 
Excels  his  mother  at  her  mighty  art; 
Offering  to  every  weary  traveller 
His  orient  liquor  in  a  crystal  glass, 


360  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

To  quench  the  drought  of  Phcebus;   which  as  they  taste 

(For  most  do  taste  through  fond  intemperate  thirst), 

Soon  as  the  potion  works,  their  human  count'nance, 

The  express  resemblance  of  the  gods,  is  changed 

Into  some  brutish  form  of  wolf  or  bear, 

Or  ounce  or  tiger,  hog  or  bearded  goat, 

All  other  parts  remaining  as  they  were. 

And  they,  so  perfect  is  their  misery, 

Nor  once  perceive  their  foul  disfigurement, 

But  boast  themselves  more  comely  than  before, 

And  all  their  friends  and  native  home  forgot, 

To  roll  with  pleasure  in  a  sensual  sty." 

— Milton's  Comus:    lines  46-77 

"Within  the  navel  of  this  hideous  wood, 
Immured  in  cypress  shades,  a  sorcerer  dwells, 
Of  Bacchus  and  of  Circe  born,  great  Comus, 
Deep  skilled  in  all  his  mother's  witcheries, 
And  here  to  every  thirsty  wanderer 
By  sly  enticement  gives  his  baneful  cup, 
With  many  murmurs  mixed,  whose  pleasing  poison 
The  visage  quite  transforms  of  him  that  drinks, 
And  the  inglorious  likeness  of  a  beast 
Fixes  instead,  unmolding  reason's  mintage 
Charactered  in  the  face." 

— Milton's  Comus:  lines  520-530 

Literary  Criticism  and  Book  Reviews.  In  making  an 
abstract,  as  we  have  noticed,  nothing  is  included  which 
was  not  in  the  original.  As  soon  as  one  begins  to  add 
opinions  of  his  own  he  ceases  being  a  maker  of  abstracts 
and  becomes  a  critic.  Although  they  are  confused  in 
the  minds  of  some  there  is  no  vital  connection  between 
abstracts  and  book  reviews.  A  critic  of  a  book  may 
find  it  necessary  to  include  in  his  review  of  a  book  a 
very  brief  summary,  but  such  a  practice  is  only  inci- 
dental to  the  critic's  real  purpose.  If  too  full  an  ab- 
stract is  given  it  may  defeat  the  critic's  purpose.    To 


EXPOSITION  361 

avoid  confusing  the  abstract  with  the  book  review 
note  carefully  what  the  latter  is. 

One  of  the  most  practical  forms  of  exposition  is  lit- 
erary criticism.  Its  chief  value  lies  in  the  fact  that  it 
enables  you  to  correlate  and  synchronize  your  study  of 
literature  with  composition.  The  more  vou  learn  to 
estimate  correctly  the  writings  of  others  the  better  will 
you  be  able  to  write;  the  more  your  power  of  literary 
appreciation  increases  the  more  your  powers  of  expres- 
sion will  develop.  Do  not,  then,  look  upon  the  writing 
of  book  reviews  as  useless  drudgery.  Consider  it, 
rather,  as  your  best  opportunity  to  improve,  at  the 
same  time,  your  power  of  judging  literature  and  your 
facility  of  expression. 

Literary  criticism  is  evaluating  a  book  according  to 
an  accepted  and  worthy  standard.  Matthew  Arnold 
says  it  is  "a  disinterested  endeavor  to  learn  and  prop- 
agate the  best  that  is  known  and  thought  in  the  world." 
For  practical  purposes  in  the  high  school  we  give  this 
definition:  Literary  criticism  is  an  intelligent  and  sym- 
pathetic estimate  of  the  worth  of  a  book  made  after 
careful  reading  and  a  thoughtful  consideration  of  its 
matter  and  form. 

Suggestions  for  reviewing  a  novel,  short-story,  drama, 
or  narrative  poem. 

1.  Read  the  book  to  be  reviewed  with  care  and  with- 
out prejudice.  Take  brief  notes,  each  note  upon  a 
separate  slip  of  paper,  concerning  the  setting  or  back- 
ground, the  plot  development,  characters,  striking  in- 
cidents or  notable  passages,  and  your  growing  and  per- 


362  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

haps  changing  impressions.    If  possible,  find  out  some- 
thing about  the  author. 

2.  In  a  separate  paragraph,  which  is  not  to  be  con- 
sidered a  part  of  your  review,  give  the  complete  title 
of  the  book,  the  name  of  the  author,  the  publisher,  and 
(if  possible)  the  price. 

3.  Before  beginning  to  write  your  review  study  your 
notes  and  think  through  the  story  to  give  continuity 
to  your  impressions  and  to  plan  for  your  exposition. 

4.  As  a  rule,  plan  to  arrange  your  material  in  some 
such  order  as  this : 

(a.)  Begin  with  a  general  impression  of  the  book 
as  a  whole,  comparing  it,  if  possible,  with  some 
other  book  of  the  same  kind  or  by  the  same  au- 
thor. 

(b.)  Tell  enough  of  the  story  to  arouse  the  read- 
ers interest  or  curiosity,  but  no  more.  If  it  is  a 
story  with  surprises  at  the  end,  mention  the  fact, 
but  by  no  means  tell  what  they  are.  Let  the  reader 
of  the  book  have  the  pleasure  of  discovering  them 
for  himself. 

(c.)  For  the  main  body  of  your  review  select 
some  feature  for  fuller  development,  such  as  the 
plot  interest,  the  kind  of  characters,  the  style  of 
the  author,  the  diction,  fidelity  to  life,  or  the  evi- 
dent purpose  of  the  author  and  the  way  he  has,  or 
has  not,  carried  it  out. 

(d.)  Select  a  few  passages  to  quote  in  substan- 
tiating whatever  claims  you  have  made  in  dis- 
cussing the  book. 


EXPOSITION  363 

(e.)  Analyze  your  impressions  further,  asking 
yourself  what  the  book  has  done  for  you  intellec- 
tually, aesthetically,  and  morally,  to  enable  you  to 
make  some  final  recommendation  concerning  it. 
(f .)  Write  your  review  according  to  the  plan  you 
have  made,  using  from  three  to  five  paragraphs 
and  from  four  hundred  to  six  hundred  words.    See 
to  it  that  your  finished  product  has  all  the  requi- 
sites of  good  exposition. 
Cautions.     1.  Remember  that  criticism  is   judging 
the  merits  of  a  book,  and  is  not  to  be  confused  with 
mere  fault-finding,  on  the  one  hand,  nor  with  fulsome 
praise  on  the  other.  Avoid  mere  generalities.    Be  honest 
with  yourself,  the  author  of  the  book,  and  the  possible 
reader. 

2.  Beware  of  the  undue  use  of  such  words  as  dull  and 
dry.  They  are  often  misused.  To  apply  them  to  all 
thoughtful  books  indiscriminately  will  not  injure  them 
or  their  writers;  the  practice  will  reveal  you  in  an  un- 
enviable light. 

3.  Be  sure  that  you  have  some  standard  acquired 
from  your  previous  reading,  from  a  textbook,  or  from 
your  teacher,  to  assist  and  supplement  your  own  per- 
sonal taste.  Get  a  definite  idea  of  what  constitutes  a 
good  book  and  remember  that  books,  like  people,  may 
be  good  in  various  ways. 

4.  To  be  fair  to  an  author  judge  his  work  according 
to  his  purpose  and  the  standards  of  the  time  the  book 
represents,  not  according  to  what  you  think  his  pur- 
pose should  have  been,  and  not  according  to  the  stand- 


364  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

ards  of  another  century.  Do  not  be  guilty  of  such 
inane  statements  as  that  of  a  woman  who  said  to  a 
famous  English  actor,  after  witnessing  his  Antony  and 
Cleopatra:  " Cleopatra  may  be  a  very  interesting  char- 
acter, but  her  home  life  was  so  different  from  that  of 
our  own  dear  Queen. " 

5.  Do  not  condemn  a  book  because  it  is  a  trageay, 
or  because  it  has  tragedy  in  it.  Learn  what  tragedy  is. 
Judge  a  tragedy  as  a  tragedy;  do  not  complain  because 
it  is  not  something  else. 

6.  Do  not  condemn  a  book  because  it  has  a  villain 
or  unpleasant  people  in  it.  Study  the  author's  purpose 
in  putting  them  into  the  story.  See  how  he  handles 
them  in  relation  to  the  other  characters.    Be  fair. 

Suggestions  for  books  other  than  novels,  plays,  and 
narrative  poems. 

In  criticizing  essays,  orations,  works  on  criticism, 
biographies,  histories,  and  the  like,  one  should  read 
with  greater  care  and  take  fuller  notes.  Pay  more 
attention  to  the  way  an  author  handles  his  subject 
and  to  his  conclusions.  In  the  case  of  essays,  give 
special  attention  to  style  as  well.  If  what  you  read  is 
controversial,  carefully  scrutinize  the  arguments  used. 

In  criticizing  lyric  poems  it  is  not  safe  to  be  satisfied 
with  one  reading.  They  require  careful  study.  Give 
attention,  especially,  to  your  emotional  impressions  and 
to  your  aesthetic  reactions.  Take  into  account  such 
matters  as  poetic  technique,  poetic  diction,  the  use  of 
figures  of  speech,  and  whatever  else  should  be  consid- 
ered in  estimating  the  quality  of  the  poetry. 


EXPOSITION  365 

In  criticizing  a  series  of  essays  or  poems,  study  to 
find  the  author's  most  distinguishing  characteristics  as 
illustrated  in  several  of  the  examples  of  his  work  in  the 
volume  under  consideration.  Select  one  or  two  for 
special  study.  As  far  as  possible,  use  the  inductive 
method  when  considering  a  collection  of  works. 

Study  book  reviews  in  such  magazines  as,  The  Book- 
man, The  Atlantic  Monthly,  The  Literary  Digest,  and 
The  Independent. 

Remember  that  in  writing  your  book  reviews  you 
are  to  show  that  you  understand  and  enjoy  literature, 
and  that,  through  your  review,  you  are  to  help  others 
to  do  the  same. 

His  Family.    By  Ernest  Poole.     New  York:    The  Macmillan 
Company.     $1.35. 

"  After  The  Harbor  we  expected  Ernest 
Poole  to  write  more  really  worth-while  novels. 
In  His  Family  we  are  not  disappointed;  it  is 
as  significant  as  The  Harbor  in  its  sure  touch, 
in  its  reality  of  contact  with  life,  in  its  large 
naturalness,  that  takes  it  out  of  the  realm  of 
romance  into  that  of  realism,  but  gives  it  the 
power  to  hold  within  itself  the  enchantment 
of  romance. 

"The  hero  of  this  novel  is  not  a  boy,  nor 
again  a  young  man.  He  is  an  old  man  and 
the  father  of  a  family.  His  wife  had  said 
shortly  before  her  death,  'You  will  live  again 
in  the  lives  of  our  children/  and  so  it  is  that 
in  the  struggle  to  get  acquainted  with  his  chil- 
dren this  man  is  really  made  to  live  again  long 


366  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

after  the  time  when  men  usually  live  in  an 
actual  sense. 

"The  tragedy  of  this  man  is  the  tragedy  of  a 
million  fathers  in  America.  They  do  not  know 
their  children;  they  cannot,  therefore,  share 
in  the  ambitions,  the  aspirations,  the  sorrows, 
and  the  joys  of  their  children.  To  find  a  way 
to  do  this,  the  man  in  question  started  out  all 
over  again  after  his  children  were  grown,  after 
he  was  a  grandfather,  and  when  his  youngest 
daughter  had  chosen  to  marry  a  man  of  whom 
he  could  not  entirely  approve. 

"The  story  is  rich  in  rarely  fine  charac- 
ter study.  The  characters  create  their  own 
situations,  bring  about  their  own  climaxes. 
One  gets  under  the  skin  of  these  people  and 
is  enabled  to  read  their  hearts  and  to  know 
their  minds.  For  the  reader  who  wants  to 
touch  life  in  his  books  His  Family  will  come 
as  a  real  treat."— The  Booknews  Monthly 

Gaskell's  Cranford.  Edited  by  Charles  Elbert  Rhodes,  A.M., 
Department  of  English  in  the  Lafayette  High  School,  Buffalo. 
New  York:  The  American  Book  Company,  1907;  pp.  xxv-312. 
Cloth,  16mo.    40  cents. 

"The  editor's  work  in  this  edition  of  Cran- 
ford has  all  the  marks  which  Henry  van  Dyke, 
the  general  editor  of  the  Gateway  Series  of 
English  Texts,  to  which  this  volume  belongs, 
tries  to  make  prominent  in  the  editorial  equip- 
ment of  this  series  of  English  classics  for  school 
use — simplicity,  thoroughness,  shortness,  and 
clearness.  Every  sentence  in  the  editor's  in- 
troduction is  designed  to  lead  to  a  loving  study 
of  Mrs.  Gaskell's  masterpiece.     It  is  hard  to 


EXPOSITION  367 

see  how  a  high-schooi  student  can  read  the 
introduction  without  wishing  to  enjoy  the 
story  itself,  for  Mr.  Rhodes  has  done  all  that 
is  possible  in  way  of  introductory  sketch  to 
lead  young  readers  to  appreciate  the  merits 
and  catch  the  spirit  of  a  classic  like  Cranford. 
He  portrays  the  personality  of  the  author  and 
says  just  enough  of  the  theme  and  style  of  the 
book  itself  to  arouse  the  student's  interest. 
Two  sets  of  notes — one  at  the  foot  of  the  page 
defining  difficult  words  and  phrases,  and  an- 
other at  the  end  of  the  book  explaining  such 
allusions  as  are  likely  to  be  unknown  to  the 
student — and  test  questions  for  review  are 
provided. 

"Of  the  recent  additions  to  the  books  pre- 
scribed for  college  entrance  in  English,  none 
merits  a  wider  reading  in  the  secondary  schools 
than  Cranford,  and  Mr.  Rhodes'  admirable 
edition  will  unquestionably  do  much  to  induce 
teachers  to  put  this  classic  into  the  hands  of 
their  classes.  We  quite  agree  with  the  opinion 
of  the  critic  who  always  judges  of  people's 
literary  taste  by  their  estimate  of  Cranford" 
— Albert  Leonard,  Ph.D.,  in  The  Journal  of  Pedagogy 

The  New  American  Drama.    By  Richard  Burton.    New  York: 
Thomas  Y.  Crowell  Company.     $1.25  net. 

' '  We  have  been  eagerly  awaiting  the  appear- 
ance of  this  book,  for  we  know  Dr.  Burton, 
Professor  of  English  literature  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Minnesota,  member  of  the  National 
Institute  of  Arts  and  Letters,  and  we  know 
how  carefully  he  has  been  studying  the  drama 
for  the  past  few  years.     Now  that  the  book 


368  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

has  been  read  we  are  not  disappointed.  It  is 
all  we  expected,  and  we  could  say  no  more. 
We  read  it  through  at  a  sitting;  there  was  no 
putting  it  down. 

"We  count  this  book  worth  while  because 
the  author  speaks  with  far  more  than  academic 
authority  upon  one  of  the  most  vital  and  im- 
portant problems  of  the  day.  It  is  not  filled 
with  platitudes  about  famous  actors  or  with 
generalities  about  elevating  the  stage.  It  is. 
a  frank  and  sincere  handling  of  the  subject. 
The  author  faces  the  difficulties;  he  is  not  dis- 
couraged by  their  magnitude  nor  by  their 
number.  He  can  read  the  signs  of  the  times 
and  he  does  read  them  in  a  most  sanely  opti- 
mistic way.  He  believes  with  most  writers 
upon  the  subject,  in  the  theater  as  a  means  of 
amusement,  but  he  differs  from  many  in 
boldly  asserting  that  it  must  also  have  a  higher 
constructive  and  instructive  purpose  which 
in  no  way  interferes  with  its  province  of  giving 
amusement. 

"  A  dominant  note  in  the  book  is  the  author's, 
attempt  to  arouse  the  better  people  to  see  and 
to  feel  their  responsibility  to  make  the  theater 
better  by  learning  properly  to  discriminate  as 
to  the  real  merits  of  plays;  then  to  demand 
the  right  kind;  and  then  to  show  their  appre- 
ciation by  supporting  them  when  they  are 
offered.  Dr.  Burton  believes  with  the  Drama 
League  of  America,  of  which  he  is  a  vice  presi- 
dent, that  the  only  way  to  kill  bad  plays  is  to 
keep  the  good  ones  alive.  He  believes  people 
should  take  their  culture  and  their  consciences 
with  them  to  the  (heater. 


EXPOSITION  369 

"  While  the  whole  book  shows  a  mastery  of 
the  subject  and  reveals  conclusions  which  give 
evidence  of  having  been  reached  only  after 
thorough  deliberation,  we  would  call  especial 
attention  to  the  chapters  on  "The  Theater 
and  the  People/'  and  "The  Theater  and  Edu- 
cation." The  matter  of  Technique  is  handled 
in  an  illuminating  way  in  a  chapter  bearing 
that  title;  realism  is  well  treated  in  the  chap- 
ter called  "Truth/'  while  idealism  receives 
due  justice  in  the  chapter  called  "Romance." 
There  are  plenty  of  people  yet  living  who 
would  do  well  to  read  the  chapter  on  "Idea 
in  Drama/'  for  it  would  breed  thought,  and 
unless  they  are  too  strongly  bound  by  preju- 
dices might  lead  to  some  convictions  of  the 
right  sort. 

"Dr.  Burton's  book  is  strictly  American 
and  every  good  citizen  should  read  it,  and 
doubtless  many  such  will  find  it  just  what 
they  have  been  looking  for,  and  then  they  will 
reread  it  and  become  more  sane  on  many  mat- 
ters so  deeply  touching  life.  Dr.  Burton's 
clear  and  forceful  style,  not  devoid  of  a  real 
charm,  renders  the  reading  of  the  book  a  de- 
light. We  note  but  one  omission,  an  index, 
which  we  trust  will  be  added  in  the  second 
edition,  which  will  surely  be  called  for  within 
the  year. 

"We  quote  the  author's  closing  words  with- 
out comment,  for  they  need  none:  'Is  there 
under  heaven  a  more  satiric  incongruity  than 
the  sight  of  a  person  bewailing  the  lack  of  ex- 
cellent plays  when,  by  his  refusal  to  attend 
one  at  its  coming,  or  his  ignorance  of  the  pres- 


370  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

ence  of  one  at  his  door,  he  is  doing  all  in  his 
power  to  perpetuate  the  very  condition  of 
things  he  bemoans. " 

— Charles  Elbert  Rhodes,  in  The  Chautauquan 

The  following  words,  written  by  President  Wilson  at 
the  request  of  the  American  branch  of  the  Scripture 
Gift  Mission,  and  to  be  placed  on  the  fly  leaf  of  every 
Bible  presented  to  our  soldiers,  are  not  intended  as  a 
book  review  and  yet  are  so  pat  that  they  may  be  given 
here  as  an  example  of  some  of  the  things  the  best  book 
reviews  should  contain: 

"The  Bible  is  the  word  of  life.  I  beg  that 
you  will  read  it  and  find  this  out  for  yourselves 
— read,  not  little  sketches  here  and  there,  but 
long  passages  that  will  really  be  the  road  to 
the  heart  of  it.  You  will  find  it  full  of  real 
men  and  women  not  only,  but  also  of  the 
things  you  have  wondered  about  and  been 
troubled  about  all  your  life,  as  men  have  been 
always;  and  the  more  you  read  the  more  it 
will  become  plain  to  you  what  things  are  worth 
while  and  what  are  not,  what  things  make 
men  happy — loyalty,  right  dealing,  speaking 
the  truth,  readiness  to  give  everything  for 
what  they  think  their  duty,  and  most  of  all 
the  wish  that  they  may  have  the  real  approval 
of  the  Christ  who  gave  everything  for  them — 
and  the  things  that  are  guaranteed  to  make 
men  unhappy — selfishness,  cowardice,  greed, 
and  everything  that  is  low  and  mean.  When 
you  have  read  the  Bible  you  will  know  that 
it  is  the  Word  of  God,  because  you  will  have 


EXPOSITION  371 

found  it  the  key  to  your  own  heart,  your  own 
happiness,  and  your  own  duty." 

The  Editorial.  A  form  of  exposition  few  of  us  will 
ever  engage  in,  yet  should  understand,  is  editorial  writ- 
ing. Most  newspapers  consist  of  six  kinds  of  writing — 
news,  editorials,  advertisements,  stock  reports,  literary 
material  (often  furnished  by  syndicates),  and  a  humor- 
ous column.  The  news  are  bare  reports  of  the  daily 
happenings  given  without  comment.  It  is  through  its 
editorial  column  that  the  managers  of  a  paper  seek  to 
shape  public  opinion  by  interpreting  the  news,  com- 
menting upon  it,  and  applying  it.  One  turns  to  the 
editorials  whenever  he  wants  to  learn  the  attitude  of 
the  paper  upon  any  subject.  On  large  subjects  of  poli- 
tical importance  the  paper  expresses  itself  as  a  whole 
according  to  its  policy;  on  less  weighty  matters  the 
individual  editors  or,  in  some  cases,  special  editorial 
writers,  express  their  own  opinion. 

Study  the  editorials  of  the  best  newspapers — espe- 
cially the  better  weeklies — to  learn  how  to  get  large, 
comprehensive  views  of  subjects.  It  will  help  in  other 
kinds  of  expository  work. 

The  following  editorial  may  be  studied  by  way  of 
illustration: 

THUS  PASSES  THE  FILIBUSTER 

The  President  spoke  by  the  card  when  he  said,  as  the  Sixty-fourth 
Congress  came  to  an  end,  "The  Senate  of  the  United  States  is  the 
only  legislative  body  in  the  world  which  cannot  act  when  its  majority 
is  ready  for  action."  The  Senate  has  always  had  some  ridiculous 
— and  mischievous — rules  and  practises.    The  most  absurd,  and  at 


372  .  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

times  the  most  dangerous,  was  the  absence  of  any  rule  by  which 
the  body  could  bring  a  matter  to  a  vote  when  the  majority  believed 
that  it  had  been  debated  long  enough.  Such  a  rule  is  indispensable 
to  effective  transaction  of  business  in  any  legislative  body. 

The  Senate  has  always  clung  to  the  practice  of  permitting  any 
senator  to  talk  on  any  measure  just  as  long  as  his  inclination  dic- 
tated and  his  physical  endurance  permitted.  The  result  was  on 
occasion  the  filibuster,  which  consisted  in  the  "talking  to  death"  of 
a  bill  or  resolution  by  a  senator  or  group  of  senators.  Obviously 
the  best  time  for  such  a  manceuver  was  the  end  of  a  session.  If 
the  Senate  was  obliged  by  constitutional  limitation  to  adjourn  at 
a  certain  day  and  hour,  and  if  a  few  senators  would  occupy  all  the 
time  before  adjournment  with  talk,  relevant  or  irrelevant,  wise  or 
foolish,  obviously  the  measure  to  which  they  were  opposed  could 
be  defeated  by  the  simple  device  of  preventing  it  from  coming  to  a 
vote. 

This  is  precisely  what  happened,  in  peculiarly  disgraceful  form, 
in  the  session  just  ended.  "A  little  group  of  willful  men,"  in  the 
President's  phrase,  already  in  a  fair  way  to  become  historic,  pre- 
vented, by  the  sheer  force  of  obstinacy  and  recalcitrance,  the  over- 
whelming majority  of  the  Senate  from  doing  what  they,  the  Presi- 
dent, the  unanimous  House,  and  the  country  wanted  done. 

But  it  never  can  happen  again.  The  Senate  has  come  to  itself 
with  a  start  and  amended  its  rules.  It  has  made  majority  rule  pos- 
sible where  before  minority  tyranny  was  the  only  certainty.  In 
the  future,  by  a  two-thirds  vote,  an  end  can  be  put  to  debate  after 
each  senator  has  been  given  an  hour  to  speak,  if  he  wants  to.  It 
is  hardly  a  drastic  closure  rule,  since  it  would  permit,  in  the  extreme 
case,  ninety-six  hours  of  debate.  But,  after  all,  filibustering  is  the 
act  of  a  minority,  and  generally  of  a  very  small  minority.  Its  evil 
effects  appear  only  when  a  few  men  consume  vast  quantities  of  time 
in  purely  dilatory  talk. 

The  passing  of  the  filibuster  is  a  consummation  devoutly  to  be 
welcomed. — The  Independent 

Exposition  by  Analysis.  Exposition  by  definition, 
which  we  have  considered  at  length,  deals  with  matters 
which  may  be  considered  as  a  whole:  definitions  of 
single  terms,  character  estimates,  explanations  of  situa- 
tions in  stories,  abstracts,  book  reviews,  editorials,  and 


EXPOSITION  373 

the  like,  where  the  explanation  requires  a  single  para- 
graph only  or  where  the  subject  is  so  limited  and  unified 
that,  though  more  than  one  paragraph  may  be  used, 
the  synthetic  method  of  definition  is  still  the  most  ap- 
propriate. When,  however,  we  come  to  larger  subjects 
where  the  method  of  definition  is  inadequate,  we  must 
use  the  more  elastic  and  comprehensive  method  of  ex- 
position by  analysis,  whereby  the  subject  is  divided 
into  its  component  parts.  The  expository  outline, 
which  is  helpful  even  in  book  reviews  of  more  than  one 
paragraph,  is  essential  in  exposition  by  analysis. 

Limiting  the  Subject.  When  we  speak  of  large  sub- 
jects, we  must  add  the  caution  that  there  is  danger  of 
attempting  to  explain  subjects  that  are  too  large.  We 
again  emphasize  the  need  of  limiting  the  subject  by  re- 
ducing it  to  a  concise  title,  one  that  is  definite  and 
manageable.  Some  of  the  greatest  obstacles  in  the  way 
of  success  in  composition  may  be  avoided  by  limiting 
the  subject.  The  beginner  naturally  thinks  that  the 
larger  the  subject  the  easier  it  will  be  to  gather  mate- 
rial. In  a  way  that  is  so.  But  when  one  begins  to  apply 
the  test  of  unity  he  will  find  that  most  of  his  supposed 
material  is  useless.  Whereas,  with  a  limited  subject, 
the  process  of  gathering  material  is  really  easier,  be- 
cause if  one  keeps  the  law  on  unity  in  mind  he  will 
know  definitely  what  he  can  use  and  can  more  easily 
recognize  its  suitable  qualities.  For  instance,  if  you 
should  attempt  to  write  upon  Athletics,  you  would  most 
likely  use  a  few  vague  generalities  and  would  succeed 
in  saying  nothing  worth  while.    If,  on  the  other  hand, 


374  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

you  should  try  to  write  upon  The  Place  of  Athletics  in 
School  Life,  you  would  find  the  definite  and  limited 
topic  to  aid  you  in  finding  something  to  say. 

Another  reason  for  limiting  the  subject  is  that  when 
you  begin  the  process  of  analysis  of  a  very  large  sub- 
ject, like  Literature,  you  are  at  once  confronted  with  so 
many  divisions  and  subdivisions  as  to  be  lost  in  a  maze 
of  complexity  that  even  a  knowledge  of  the  principles 
of  unity  and  coherence  could  not  wholly  help  you  to 
write  clearly.  When  there  are  too  many  subdivisions 
one  is  tempted  either  to  slight  them  and  treat  them 
superficially  or  to  ignore  some  altogether.  To  do  either 
is  to  fail  to  explain  adequately.  To  limit  the  subject 
by  reducing  it  to  a  definite  title  is  to  avoid  that  diffi- 
culty. My  Favorite  Novel  is  a  title,  for  instance,  easy 
to  be  analyzed  and  treated  definitely. 

The  Outline  in  Exposition.  The  only  safe  way  to 
analyze  a  subject  is  by  making  an  outline.  This  re- 
quires careful  thinking.  Even  though  it  may  require 
study,  know  your  subject.  Take  stock  of  your  mate- 
rial. Again  use  the  card  catalogue  system,  with  a  single 
note  on  each  card.  As  you  evaluate  your  material,  in 
the  fight  of  your  title,  and  select  what  is  actually  avail- 
able and  most  vital  for  your  purpose,  you  will  find  that 
certain  parts  of  it  will  naturally  go  together.  All  you 
can  classify  under  each  separate  heading  should  be 
placed  there.  The  relative  values  of  the  various  parts 
of  the  material  will  enable  you  to  subordinate  the 
minor  parts  to  the  more  important  and  thus  indicate 
their  relation  to  each  other.    Then  you  are  ready  to 


EXPOSITION  375 

formulate  your  plan  or  outline.  The  result  will  be  a 
framework,  or  skeleton,  analogous  to  the  human  skele- 
ton, which  gives  form  and  firmness  to  the  body.  Unless 
the  parts  are  properly  articulated,  like  the  bones  in  a 
skeleton,  the  composition  will  lack  flexibility,  move- 
ment, life.  If  the  plan  is  properly  made,  the  matter 
of  writing  will  be  comparatively  easy  and  the  result  a 
finished  product  of  exposition  possessing  strength,  in- 
terest, and  charm  similar  to  that  of  any  well-developed 
organism. 

Essentials  of  an  Outline.  The  outline  for  an  exposi- 
tion of  more  than  one  paragraph  consists  of  three  parts: 
the  introduction,  the  body  or  exposition  proper,  and 
the  conclusion.  The  introduction  should  give,  very 
briefly,  the  purpose  of  the  writer,  together  with  some 
suggestion  calculated  to  arouse  interest.  The  body 
should  show  at  a  glance  the  whole  framework  of  the 
plan,  and  indicate  the  two  or  more  major  and  correla- 
tive headings,  together  with  the  minor  subdivisions 
under  each  main  heading.  The  conclusion  should  show 
that  the  purpose  stated  in  the  introduction  has  been 
accomplished  and  include  such  inferences  and  appli- 
cations as  suit  the  purpose  of  the  writer.  The  follow- 
ing outline  plan  may  serve  as  a  model  after  which  to 
pattern  plans  for  other  subjects. 

The  Writings  of  Edgar  Allan  Poe 
Introduction. — Comprehensive  view  of  Poe's  writings 
necessary  in  justice  to  him  and  to  us.     Necessary  in 
order  to  classify  him  and  to  estimate  his  value  as  com- 


376  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

pared  with  other  writers.     Such  a  view  will  surprise 
some. 

I — Poems:  A.  Poems    expressing    Poe's    prevailing 
mood: 

a.  To  Helen.     (Called  best  by  the 

critics.) 

b.  Ulalume. 

c.  The    Raven.      (Greatest    single 

poem  in  American  literature.) 

d.  Lenore. 

e.  Ligeia.    (From  Al  Aaraaf.) 

f.  For  Annie.    (Which  Poe  thought 

his  best.) 

g.  Annabel  Lee. 
h.  The  Sleeper. 

B.  Poems  of  morbid  psychology,  mad- 

ness, etc. 

a.  Tamerlane. 

b.  The  City  in  the  Sea. 

c.  The  Valley  of  Unrest. 

d.  The  Haunted  Palace. 

e.  The  Conqueror  Worm. 

C.  A  Study  in  Melodies: 

a.  The  Bells. 

D.  A  Study  in  Beauty  among  Ruins: 

a.  The  Coliseum. 

E.  A  Vision  of  an  Angel  Poet:    (Personal 

touch.) 
a:  Israfel. 


EXPOSITION  377 

F.  Poe's   tribute   to   his   mother-in-law. 

The  great  poem  on  the  subject, 
a.  To  My  Mother. 

G.  Poe's  Swan  Song.     (Published  a  few 

days  after  his  death.) 
a.  Eldorado. 

II — The  Stories :  A.  Analytical  stories.  Mystery  sto- 
ries. First  great  detective  sto- 
ries: 

a.  The  Gold  Bug. 

b.  The    Murders    of   the   Rue 

Morgue. 

c.  The    Mystery    of    Marie 

Roget. 

d.  The  Purloined  Letter. 

B.  Allegorical  Tales.    (Dual  person- 

ality.) 

a.  The  Black  Cat. 

b.  The  Telltale  Heart. 

c.  Willirm  Wilson. 

C.  Tales  of  extravagant  adventure. 

(Pseudo-science. ) 

a.  A  Descent  into  the   Mael- 

strom. 

b.  The  Unparalleled  Adventure 

of  One  Hans  Pfall. 

c.  Narrative  of  Arthur  Gordon 

Pym,  of  Nantucket. 


378  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

D.  Stories    of   Horror.      (Stories   of 

Atmosphere.) 

a.  The  Fall   of  the   House   of 

Usher. 

b.  Ligeia. 

c.  Manuscript  Found  in  a  Bot- 

tle. 

E.  Miscellaneous  Tales: 

a.  The    Masque    of    the    Red 

Death. 

b.  The  Pit  and  the  Pendulum. 

c.  The    Cask    of   Amontillado. 

(Perfect  in  construction.) 

d.  The  Assignation. 

Ill — Criticism:  A.  A  student  of  Coleridge,  a  con- 
structive critic  laying  the  foun- 
dations for  literary  criticism  in 
America. 

a.  Criticism  of  Longfellow. 

b.  Criticism  of  Hawthorne. 

B.  His  harshness  due  to  his  own  view 
of  poetry. 

Conclusion:  Sum  up  very  briefly  the  characteristics 
revealed  in  each  kind  of  writing.  Show  that  Poe  must 
be  read  to  be  appreciated  and  that  he  is  worth  reading. 
Show  that  the  best  way  to  settle  "The  Poe  Problem" 
is  to  study  all  of  Poe  with  the  aid  of  such  a  biography 
as  that  of  Professor  Harrison. 


EXPOSITION  379 

A  SIMPLE  PLAN  FOR  AN  EXPOSITORY 
COMPOSITION 

Trolling  for  Muskellunge 

Introduction:  A  brief  statement  about  the  charm  of 
such  fishing,  and  the  need  for  great  care  if  one  would 
succeed. 
Body: 

Paragraph  1 :  Getting  ready. 
Polishing  the  spoons. 
Filing  the  hook  points. 
Placing  gaff  hook  and  landing  net  with- 
in reach,  in  the  boat. 
Seeing  that  the  lines  are  not  tangled; 
that  the  spoons  are  securely  fastened, 
properly  weighted,  etc. 
(Develop   paragraph   by   giving   de- 
tails.) 
Paragraph  2:  Trolling. 

In  summer,  troll  in  deep  water  in  places 
reported  good.  Row  slowly.  Watch 
the  lines.  Cover  the  territory  well. 
Occasionally  examine  the  spoons  to 
remove  possible  floating  weeds  that 
may  have  been  caught. 
In  autumn,  troll  along  the  weeds.  If 
stakes  have  been  placed  to  mark  the 
edge  of  the  weeds,  keep  just  outside 
the  stakes. 


380  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

Frequently    examine    the    spoons    for 

weeds. 
Paragraph  3 :  Landing  the  fish. 

If  the  line  is  fastened  to  the  boat  stop 

rowing  as  soon  as  the  fish  strikes; 

play  the  fish  by  hand. 
If  line  is  on  a  pole,  keep  on  rowing 
\    slowly. 
Avoid  hurry. 
Tire  the  fish. 
Gradually  bring  him  beside  the  boat. 

Keep  him  from  striking  the  side  of  the, 

boat. 
Watch  opportunity;    if  he  is  moderate 

in  size  net  him;    if  large,  gaff  him. 

Kill  him  at  once. 
Conclusion:   A  brief  description  of  the  thrill  of  ex- 
citement. 

A   STILL   SIMPLER   PLAN   FOR   AN    EXPOSITORY 
COMPOSITION 

Trolling  for  Muskellunge 

Introduction:  The  charm  of  such  fishing,  etc. 
Body: 

Paragraph  1 :  Getting  ready. 

a.  Care  of  spoons. 

b.  Arrangement  of  tackle,  etc.,  in  boat. 

c.  Final  inventory  to  see  that  all  is  right. 


EXPOSITION  381 

Paragraph  2 :  Trolling. 

a.  In  summer:  1.  How  to  row. 

2.  Where  to  go.     Deep. 

3.  Avoiding  weeds. 

b.  In  autumn:  1.  Where  to  go.    Weeds. 

2.  Marking  stakes. 

3.  Care  of  spoons. 
Paragraph  3 :  Landing  the  fish. 

a.  If  line  is  fastened  to  boat. 

1.  Stop  rowing. 

2.  Play  fish  by  hand. 

3.  Be  patient. 

b.  If  line  on  pole. 

1.  Keep  on  rowing,  slowly. 

2.  Tire  fish  gradually. 

3.  Keep  him  from  side  of 
boat  until  tired  out. 

4.  Then,  if  large,  gaff  him; 
if  small,  net  him. 

5.  Kill  fish  as  soon  as 
landed 

Paragraph  4:  Conclusion. 
The  satisfaction  of  it  all. 
In  all  planning  remember  that  the  plan  is  to  be  the 
design  to  guide  you  in  the  work  of  writing.    Plan  with 
the  utmost  care. 

Suggestions  for  Practice  in  Expository  Writing 

Here,  as  in  all  practice  writing,  keep  ever  before  you  the  fact  that 
you  are  to  make  an  interesting  finished  product  of  effective  expres- 
sion;   that  you  are  to  make  it  out  of  the  available  material  and 


382  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

according  to  the  principles  of  unity,  coherence  and  proportion  and 
emphasis;  and  that  the  finished  product  must  be  clear,  forceful, 
and  elegant.     It  is  the  practice  that  counts. 

Begin  by  writing  simple  explanations  of  processes  or  ways  of 
doing  and  of  making  things.  First  attempt  those  processes  with 
which  you  are  familiar  from  experience;  then  try  the  more  difficult 
ones  upon  which  you  must  study  to  get  material. 

Such  titles  as  these  will  be  suggestive: 

1.  How  to  Build  a  Camp  Fire  under  Difficulties. 

2.  How  to  Prepare  a  Five-minute  Speech. 

3.  The  Proper  Way  to  Read  a  Newspaper. 

4.  How  I  Learned  to  Knit  Sweaters. 

5.  Learning  to  Skate. 

6.  Learning  to  Swim. 

7.  Trout  Fishing. 

8.  How  I  Learned  to  Play  Golf. 

9.  How  Maple  Sugar  is  Made. 

10.  How  to  Enjoy  a  Play. 

11.  How  to  Get  the  Most  Out  of  a  Novel. 

12.  How  to  Get  Strong  and  Keep  Strong. 

13.  Developing  my  Own  Pictures. 

14.  How  to  Overcome  Bashfulness. 

15.  How  to  Gain  Self-consciousness. 

16.  How  to  Meet  Difficulties. 

17.  How  to  Profit  by  Obstacles. 

18.  The  Best  Way  to  Overcome  Fear. 

19.  How  to  Finish  One's  Own  Pictures. 

20.  The  Mysteries  of  the  Dark  Room. 

21.  How  "Fake"  Pictures  are  Made. 

22.  Why  Cartoons  are  Effective. 

23.  The  Secret  of  the  Power  of  Satire. 

24.  How  to  Appreciate  Music. 

25.  How  to  Appreciate  Art. 

26.  How  War  Changes  our  Views  of  Life. 

27.  How  Different  I  Should  be  if  I  had  never  Read  a  Book 

28.  The  Use  of  Camouflage  in  War. 

The  foregoing  list  may  be  indefinitely  increased  by  adding 
similar  titles  suggested  by  your  own  experiences,  your  reading, 
and  your  other  studies. 


EXPOSITION  383 

For  longer  and  more  difficult  expositions,  such  as  require  outline 
plans,  consult  the  following  list  of  titles: 

1.  The  Study  of  History. 

2.  The  Study  of  Biography. 

3.  Fighting  the  Submarine. 

4.  Forest  Preservation. 

5.  Making  Artificial  Ice. 

6.  Taking  Motion  Pictures  under  Water. 

7.  The  Choice  of  a  Profession. 

8.  The  Works  of  (any  writer). 

9.  The  Inspirational  Value  of  Poetry. 

10.  How  to  Read  Interpretatively. 

11.  The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

12.  The  "Dred  Scott  Decision." 

13.  "The  Nullification  Act." 

14.  "The  Right  of  Search." 

15.  "A  Scrap  of  Paper." 

16.  The  Danger  of  Premature  Specialization  in  Professions. 

17.  The  Advantages  of  Foreign  Travel. 

18.  "See  America  First."    Defend  or  refute. 

19.  The  Value  of  Systematic  Reading. 

20.  Short  Cuts  in  Education. 

21.  The  Drama  League  of  America. 

22.  The  "Little  Theater"  Movement. 

23.  Is  a  National  Theater  Feasible? 

24.  The  Copyright  Laws. 

25.  The  "Edition-de-Luxe"  Fad. 

26.  The  Value  of  a  Hobby. 

27.  The  Danger  of  Overriding  a  Hobby. 

28.  The  "Return  to  the  Country." 

29.  Why  Country  Boys  Leave  Home. 

30.  The  Fosdick  Commission. 

31.  The  Y.  M.  C.  A.  Work  for  the  Soldiers. 

32.  The  Comic  Papers. 

33.  Vocational  Training. 

34.  Vocational  Guidance. 

35.  How  a  Great  Newspaper  is  Managed. 

36.  The  Best  System  of  Physical  Culture. 

37.  The  Charity  Organization. 

38.  The  Value  of  the  Classics. 

39.  The  Superiority  of  Humor  over  Wit. 


384  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

40.  Kipling's  "Barrack-room  Ballads." 

41.  The  Value  of  Anthologies. 

42.  Why  I  Believe  Shakespeare  Wrote  the  Plays  Attributed 
to  Him. 

43.  The  Romantic  Movement  in  English  Literature. 

44.  The  Evolution  of  the  English  Drama. 

45.  The  Evolution  of  the  Novel. 

46.  Which  Has  Done  More  for  the  World,  Genius  or  Will 
Power? 

47.  The  Difference  between  an  Artisan  and  an  Artist. 

48.  Joan  of  Arc. 

49.  America's  Debt  to  France. 

50.  The  Life  Extension  Society. 

51.  Psychology. 

52.  Why  I  Should  Like  to  Meet  (some  person  of  dis- 
tinction). 

53.  Why  I  Should  Like  to  Visit 

54.  The  Historical  Novel. 

55.  The  Value  of  Economy. 

56.  Recognizing  Opportunities. 

57.  Detective  Stories. 

58.  The  American  Red  Cross. 

59.  What  America  Owes  to  the  British  Navy. 

60.  The  Charm  of  the  "Spectator  Papers." 

61.  The  Study  of  Sociology. 

62.  Our  Life-saving  Service. 

63.  The  Responsibilities  of  a  Student. 

64.  The  Ideal  Hero  of  Fiction. 

65.  Arbor  Day. 

66.  Hallowe'en. 

67.  The  Custom  of  Sending  Valentines. 

68.  The  Value  of  Sane  Optimism. 

69.  The  Joys  and  Sorrows  of  Graduation  Day. 

70.  Are  High  Schools  Worth  to  a  City  what  they  Cost  it? 

71.  Should  Christmas  Giving  be  Restricted? 

72.  The  Advantages  and  the  Disadvantages  of  being  an 
Only  Child. 

73.  The  Dangers  Attending  the  Inheritance  of  a  Large 
Fortune. 

74.  The  Best  Kind  of  Friend. 

75.  The  League  to  Enforce  Peace. 


EXPOSITION  385 

Interpreting  proverbs,  epigrams,  adages,  and  Scripture  texts  is  a 
common  and  useful  kind  of  exposition.  Training  in  this  kind  of 
explanation  is  valuable  in  learning  the  whole  subject  of  expository 
writing.  To  begin  with,  you  have  an  excellent  topic  sentence  so 
phrased  as  to  suggest  development  of  the  paragraph  by  repetition, 
illustration,  or  cause  and  effect;  while  the  subjects  treated  are  of 
such  a  homely  and  practical  sort  as  to  suggest  abundant  suitable 
material. 

The  following  are  suggestive: 

1.  An  Ounce  of  Prevention  is  Worth  a  Pound  of  Cure. 

2.  A  Stitch  in  Time  Saves  Nine. 

3.  Penny  wise,  Pound  foolish. 

4.  Haste  Makes  Waste. 

5.  Where  there's  a  Will,  there's  a  Way. 

6.  I'll  Find  a  Way,  or  Make  One. 

7.  All's  Well  that  Ends  Well. 

8.  Variety  is  the  Spice  of  Life. 

9.  Don't  Count  your  Chickens  Till  the  Eggs  are  Hatched. 

10.  Brevity  is  the  Soul  of  Wit. 

11.  Faint  Heart  Never  Won  Fair  Lady.  ' 

12.  All  Work  and  No  Play  Makes  Jack  a  Dull  Boy. 

13.  Necessity  is  the  Mother  of  Invention. 

14.  Sour  Grapes  Hang  High. 

15.  Be  not  Wise  in  Your  Own  Conceits. 

16.  Take  Time  by  the  Forelock. 

17.  There  is  always  Room  at  the  Top. 

18.  A  Bird  in  the  Hand  is  Worth  Two  in  the  Bush. 

19.  Work  Out  your  Own  Salvation. 

20.  Blessed  are  the  Peacemakers. 

21.  Go  to  the  Ant  Thou  Sluggard;  Consider  her  Ways  and 
be  Wise. 

22.  As  the  Twig  is  Bent  the  Tree  is  Inclined. 

23.  Spare  the  Rod  and  Spoil  the  Child. 

24.  Barking  Dogs  do  not  always  Bite. 

25.  A  Chain  is  no  Stronger  Than  Its  Weakest  Link. 

26.  All  is  not  Gold  that  Glisters. 

27.  Time  and  Tide  Wait  for  no  Man. 

28.  Never  cross  a  Bridge  before  you  Reach  it. 

29.  Never  Trouble  Trouble  till  Trouble  Troubles  you. 

30.  Do  not  Cry  over  Spilled  Milk. 


386 


EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 


31.  Too  many  Cooks  Spoil  the  Broth. 

32.  It's  a  long  Lane  that  has  no  Turning. 

33.  It's  Never  Too  Late  to  Mend. 

34.  Least  Said  Soonest  Mended. 

35.  Discretion  is  the  Better  Part  of  Valor. 

36.  A  Word  to  the  Wise  is  Sufficient. 

37.  What  is  Sauce  for  the  Goose  is  Sauce  for  the  Gander. 

38.  The  early  Bird  Catches  the  Worm. 

39.  Look  before  you  Leap. 

40.  Every  Cloud  has  a  Silver  Lining. 

41.  Coming  Events  Cast  their  Shadow  before. 

42.  The  Proof  of  the  Pudding  is  in  the  Eating. 

43.  Do  not  Lock  the  Stable  after  the  Horse  is  Stolen. 


CHAPTER  X 
ARGUMENTATION 

Argumentation  is  to  convince.  To  accomplish  its 
purpose  it  uses  all  the  other  forms  of  discourse,  narra- 
tion, description,  and  especially  exposition.  It  might 
be  called  a  highly  specialized  form  of  exposition  whose 
aim  is  not  only  explanation,  but  conviction.  It  is  a 
full  development  of  one  of  the  methods  of  developing 
the  expository  paragraph,  that  of  cause  and  effect,  or 
giving  proof.    It  is  persuasive  exposition. 

Argumentation,  however,  differs  from  exposition  in 
that,  instead  of  explaining  all  about  a  proposition,  it 
makes  a  comparison  between  the  two  sides  and  seeks 
to  prove  that  one  side  is  stronger  than  the  other.  This 
makes  argumentation  the  most  formal  kind  of  discourse 
and  demands  a  study  of  the  science  of  logic.  Since  it 
is  designed  to  overcome  the  arguments  of  the  opposing 
side,  it  must  make  and  use  the  most  perfect  finished 
product  of  effective  expression  that  can  be  made.  The 
raw  material  used  must  be  selected  with  the  greatest 
possible  care,  must  be  evaluated  and  tested  by  the 
processes  of  logical  reasoning,  and  must  be  so  skillfully 
arranged  as  to  resist  the  attacks  of  opponents.  In  a 
word,  argumentation  is  both  offensive  and  defensive 

3S7 


388  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

verbal  and  logical  warfare.    Facts  and  inferences  from 
them  are  drawn  up  in  martial  array. 

Informal  or  Conversational  Argumentation.  Informal 
argumentation,  popularly  called  arguing,  makes  up  the 
burden  of  most  conversation.  Opinions  differ.  Many 
people  argue  from  force  of  habit  and  because  they  like 
it.  Even  a  small  group  will  rarely  agree  concerning 
matters  pertaining  to  religion,  politics,  literature,  art, 
social  and  business  customs,  and  all  things  concerning 
which  personal  views,  habit,  and  prejudice  incline  them 
to  "take  sides."  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  Boswell 
was  in  the  habit  of  making  apparently  casual,  but  really 
studied,  remarks,  to  set  Johnson  going  in  discussion. 
But  Boswell  was  no  exception.  Nearly  every  group 
contains  both  those  who  delight  to  arouse  contention 
and  those  who  do  not  need  much  persuasion  to  partici- 
pate. Good-natured,  fair-minded  discussion,  is  the 
very  spice  of  conversation.    It  keeps  things  interesting. 

Everyone  knows,  however,  when  he  stops  to  think, 
that  most  of  the  arguing  which  often  monopolizes  con- 
versation is  wholly  illogical  and  unconvincing.  It  is 
often  only  an  evidence  of  egotism  rather  than  a  desire 
to  get  at  the  truth.  Generally,  it  reveals  a  carelessness 
which  nothing  but  a  study  of  the  principles  of  argu- 
mentation can  remove.  Such  study  is  necessary  both 
for  those  who  would  speak  or  write  with  conviction, 
and  for  those  who  would  listen  or  read  so  as  to  decide 
fairly.  Good  argument  is  capable  of  convincing  such 
as  are  capable  of  being  convinced. 

Concerning  informal  argumentation  but  little  need 


ARGUMENTATION  389 

be  said  here.  The  same  principles  which  govern  formal 
and  forensic  argumentation  must  also  control  the  more 
informal  kind.  The  only  difference  lies  in  the  infor- 
mality. Informal  discussion  may  be  just  as  logical  and 
just  as  convincing  as  a  formal  debate,  if  people  will  only 
remember  that  assertions  do  not  constitute  proof  and 
that  it  is  not  safe  to  jump  at  conclusions  or  make  hasty 
inferences  from  insufficient  data. 

The  trouble  with  most  conversational  discussion  is 
that  it  is  just  talk  for  talk's  sake.  That  trouble,  how- 
ever, should  not  exist  among  educated  people.  Keep- 
ing up  conversation  is  not  of  sufficient  importance  to 
warrant  one's  violating  all  the  laws  of  induction,  de- 
duction, and  analogy.  A  knowledge  of  those  laws,  on 
the  other  hand,  will  enable  one  to  "talk  sense,"  to  say 
something  worth  while,  to  give  reasons  that  are  reasons 
for  what  he  believes  and  for  what  he  does,  and  to  give 
just  and  sound  reasons  why  others  should  or  should 
not  do  certain  things. 

Examine  the  conversation  you  find  in  ordinary  novels, 
especially  if  they  depict  life  among  illiterate  but  talka- 
tive people,  for  examples  of  conversational  argumenta- 
tion revealing  the  wrong  way  to  do  it. 

For  a  capital  illustration  of  informal  and  conversa- 
tional argumentation,  one  that  all  are  familiar  with, 
take  the  dialogue  between  Cassius  and  Brutus,  in  which 
Cassius  argues  to  win  Brutus  to  the  side  of  the  con- 
spirators. Note  that  his  main  purpose  is  to  belittle 
Caesar  in  the  mind  of  Brutus  and  so  incite  Brutus  to 
turn  against  Caesar.    Cassius's  whole  line  of  argument 


390  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

is  most  contemptible,  just  such  as  a  shrewd  and  un- 
scrupulous man  will  use  to  gain  his  ends  when  he  is 
dealing  with  one  whom  he  believes  to  be  susceptible 
to  flattery  and  at  the  same  time  stupid  enough  to  accept 
as  argument  statements  which  have  no  semblance  of 
proof  in  them.  No  true  man  would  allow  himself  to 
be  convinced  that  another  man  was  weak  and  danger- 
ous because  he  became  exhausted  after  a  long  swim  in 
the  Tiber  or  because  he  shook  and  groaned  and  called 
for  drink  while  in  the  delirium  of  a  fever.  And  yet 
Brutus  was  moved  by  such  a  travesty  upon  reasoning. 
This  example  is,  hence,  a  good  illustration  of  the  fallacy 
inherent  in  much  common  argumentative  talk. 

"Cassius.    I  was  born  as  free  as  Caesar;   so  were  you: 
We  have  both  fed  as  well,  and  we  can  both 
Endure  the  winter's  cold  as  well  as  he: 
For  once,  upon  a  raw  and  gusty  day, 
The  troubled  Tiber  chafing  with  her  shores, 
Caesar  said  to  me,  'Darest  thou,  Cassius,  now 
Leap  in  with  me  into  this  angry  flood, 
And  swim  to  yonder  point?'     Upon  the  word, 
Accoutred  as  I  was,  I  plunged  in 
And  bade  him  follow:    so  indeed  he  did. 
The  torrent  roar'd,  and  we  did  buffet  it 
With  lusty  sinews,  throwing  it  aside 
And  stemming  it  with  hearts  of  controversy; 
But  ere  we  could  arrive  the  point  proposed, 
Caesar  cried,  'Help  me,  Cassius,  or  I  sink!' 
I,  as  iEneas  our  great  ancestor 
Did  from  the  flames  of  Troy  upon  his  shoulder 
The  old  Anchises  bear,  so  from  the  waves  of  Tiber 
Did  I  the  tired  Caesar:  and  this  man 
Is  now  become  a  god,  and  Cassius  is 
A  wretched  creature,  and  must  bend  his  body 
If  Caesar  but  carelessly  nod  on  him. 
He  had  a  fever  when  he  was  in  Spain, 


ARGUMENTATION 


301 


And  when  the  fit  was  on  him,  I  did  mark 

How  he  did  shake:    'tis  true,  this  god  did  shake: 

His  coward  lips  did  from  their  color  fly, 

And  that  same  eye  whose  bend  did  awe  the  world 

Did  lose  his  luster:    I  did  hear  him  groan: 

Ay,  and  that  tongue  of  his  that  bade  the  Romans 

Mark  him  and  write  his  speeches  in  their  books, 

Alas,  it  cried  'Give  me  some  drink,  Titinius,' 

As  a  sick  girl.    Ye  gods,  it  doth  amaze  me 

A  man  of  such  a  feeble  temper  should 

So  get  the  start  of  this  majestic  world 

And  bear  the  palm  alone. 

Brutus.     Another  general  shout! 

I  do  believe  that  these  applauses  are 

For  some  new  honors  that  are  heap'd  upon  Caesar. 

Cassius.    Why,  man,  he  doth  bestride  the  narrow  world 
Like  a  Colossus,  and  we  petty  men 
Walk  under  his  huge  legs  and  peep  about 
To  find  ourselves  dishonorable  graves. 
Men  at  some  time  are  masters  of  their  fates: 
The  fault,  dear  Brutus,  is  not  in  our  stars, 
But  in  ourselves,  that  we  are  underlings. 
Brutus  and  Caesar:  what  should  be  in  that  'Caesar'? 
Why  should  that  name  be  sounded  more  than  yours? 
Write  them  together,  yours  is  as  fair  a  name; 
Sound  them,  it  doth  become  the  mouth  as  well; 
Weigh  them,  it  is  as  heavy;   conjure  with  'em, 
'Brutus'  will  start  a  spirit  as  soon  as  'Caesar.' 
Now,  in  the  names  of  all  the  gods  at  once, 
Upon  what  meat  doth  this  our  Caesar  feed, 
That  he  is  grown  so  great?    Age,  thou  art  sham'd! 
Rome,  thou  hast  lost  the  breed  of  noble  bloods! 
When  went  there  by  an  age,  since  the  great  flood, 
But  it  was  fam'd  with  more  than  with  one  man? 
When  could  they  say  till  now,  that  talk'd  of  Rome, 
That  her  wide  walls  encompassed  but  one  man?  " 

Here  we  have  informal  argumentation  of  a  worthy 
sort: 

"It  would  be  an  object  worthy  of  the  atten- 
tion of  the  historical  societies  which  are  spring- 


392  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

ing  up  in  various  parts  of  the  Union,  to  have 
maps  executed  of  their  respective  states  or 
neighborhoods,  in  which  all  the  Indian  local 
names  should,  as  far  as  possible,  be  restored. 
In  fact,  it  appears  to  me  that  the  nomenclature 
of  the  country  is  almost  of  sufficient  impor- 
tance for  the  foundation  of  a  distinct  society ; 
or  rather,  a  corresponding  association  of  per- 
sons of  taste  and  judgment  of  all  parts  of  the 
Union.  Such  an  association,  if  properly  con- 
stituted and  composed,  comprising  especially 
all  the  literary  talent  of  the  country — though 
it  might  not  have  legislative  power  in  its  enact- 
ments, yet  would  have  the  all-pervading  power 
of  the  press;  and  the  changes  in  nomenclature 
which  it  might  dictate,  being  at  once  adopted 
by  elegant  writers  in  prose  and  poetry,  and 
interwoven  with  the  literature  of  the  country, 
would  ultimately  pass  into  popular  currency. 

"  Should  such  a  reforming  association  arise, 
I  beg  to  recommend  to  its  attention  all  those 
mongrel  names  that  have  the  adjective  New 
prefixed  to  them,  and  pray  they  may  be  one 
and  all  kicked  out  of  the  country.  I  am  for 
none  of  those  second-hand  appellations  that 
stamp  us  a  second-hand  people  and  that  are  to 
perpetuate  us  a  new  country  to  the  end  of  time. 
Odds  my  life!  Mr.  Editor,  I  hope  and  trust 
we  are  to  live  to  be  an  old  nation,  as  well  as 
our  neighbors,  and  have  no  idea  that  our 
cities,  when  they  shall  have  attained  to  vener- 
able antiquity,  shall  be  dubbed  New  York, 
New  London,  and  new  this  and  new  that,  like 
the  Pont-Neuf  (the  New  Bridge),  at  Paris, 
which  is  the  oldest  bridge  in  that  capital,  or 


ARGUMENTATION  393 

like  the  Vicar  of  Wakefield's  horse,  which  con- 
tinued to  be  called  'the  colt'  until  it  died  of 
old  age." — Wolf  erf  s  Roost:  Washington  Irving 

"Now  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  Pope's 
plan  was  most  ingenious  and  that  he  afterward 
executed  it  with  great  skill  and  success.  But 
does  it  necessarily  follow  that  Addison's  advice 
was  bad?  And  if  Addison's  advice  was  bad, 
does  it  necessarily  follow  that  it  was  given 
from  bad  motives?  If  a  friend  were  to  ask  us 
whether  we  would  advise  him  to  risk  his  all 
in  a  lottery  of  which  the  chances  were  ten  to 
one  against  him,  we  should  do  our  best  to  dis- 
suade him  from  running  such  a  risk.  Even  if 
he  were  so  lucky  as  to  get  the  thirty  thousand 
pound  prize  we  would  not  admit  that  we  had 
counseled  him  ill;  and  we  should  certainly 
think  it  the  height  of  injustice  in  him  to  accuse 
us  of  having  been  actuated  by  malice.  We 
think  Addison's  advice  good  advice.  It  rested 
on  a  sound  principle,  the  result  of  long  and 
wide  experience.  The  general  rule  undoubt- 
edly is  that,  when  a  successful  work  of  the 
imagination  has  been  produced,  it  should  not 
be  recast.  We  cannot  at  this  moment  call  to 
mind  a  single  instance  in  which  this  rule  has 
been  transgressed  with  happy  effect,  except 
the  instance  of  the  Rape  of  the  Lock.  Tasso 
recast  his  Jerusalem.  Akenside  recast  his 
Pleasures  of  the  Imagination  and  his  Epistle  to 
Curio.  Pope  himself,  emboldened  no  doubt 
by  the  success  with  which  he  had  expanded 
and  remodeled  The  Rape  of  the  Lock,  made  the 
same  experiment  on  the  Dunciad.    All  these 


394  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

attempts  failed.  Who  was  to  foresee  that 
Pope  would,  once  in  his  life,  be  able  to  do 
what  he  could  not  himself  do  twice,  and  what 
nobody  else  has  ever  done?" 

— Essay  on  Addison:  Thomas  B.  Macaulay 

"I  received  my  flOO  in  advance,  with  pro- 
found delight.  It  was  a  positive  and  most 
welcome  increase  to  my  income,  and  might 
probably  be  regarded  as  a  first  real  step  on 
the  road  to  substantial  success.  I  am  well 
aware  that  there  are  many  who  think  that  an 
author  in  his  authorship  should  not  regard 
money,  nor  a  painter,  nor  sculptor  in  his  art. 
I  do  not  know  that  this  unnatural  sacrifice  is 
supposed  to  extend  itself  further.  A  barrister, 
a  clergyman,  a  doctor,  an  engineer,  and  even 
actors  and  architects,  may  without  disgrace 
follow  the  bent  of  human  nature,  and  endeavor 
to  fill  their  bellies  and  clothe  their  backs,  and 
also  those  of  their  wives  and  children,  as  com- 
fortably as  they  can  by  the  exercise  of  their 
abilities  and  their  crafts.  They  may  be  as 
rationally  realistic  as  may  be  the  butchers  and 
the  bakers,  but  the  artist  and  the  author  for- 
get the  high  glories  of  their  calling  if  they  con- 
descend to  make  a  money  return  a  first  object. 
They  who  preach  this  doctrine  will  be  much 
offended  by  my  theory,  and  by  this  book  of 
mine,  if  my  theory  and  my  book  come  beneath 
their  notice.  They  require  the  practice  of  a 
so-called  virtue  which  is  contrary  to  nature, 
and  which,  in  my  eyes,  would  be  no  virtue  if 
it  were  practiced.  They  are  like  clergymen 
who  preach  sermons  against  the  love  of  money, 


ARGUMENTATION  395 

but  who  know  that  the  love  of  money  is  so 
distinctive  a  characteristic  of  humanity  that 
such  sermons  are  mere  platitudes  called  for  by 
customary  but  unintelligent  piety.  All  mate- 
rial progress  has  come  from  man's  desire  to  do 
the  best  he  can  for  himself  and  those  about  him, 
and  civilization  and  Christianity  itself  have 
been  made  possible  by  such  progress.  Though 
we  do  not  all  of  us  argue  this  matter  out  within 
our  breasts,  we  do  all  feel  it ;  and  we  know  that 
the  more  a  man  earns  the  more  useful  he  is  to 
his  fellow-men.  The  most  useful  lawyers,  as  a 
rule,  have  been  those  who  have  made  the 
greatest  incomes — and  it  is  the  same  with  the 
doctors.  It  would  be  the  same  in  the  church 
if  they  who  have  the  choosing  of  bishops 
always  chose  the  best  man.  And  it  has,  in 
truth,  been  so  too  in  art  and  authorship.  Did 
Titian  or  Rubens  disregard  their  pecuniary 
rewards?  As  far  as  we  know,  Shakespeare 
worked  always  for  money,  giving  the  best  of 
his  intellect  to  support  his  trade  as  an  actor. 
In  our  own  century  what  literary  names  stand 
higher  than  those  of  Byron,  Tennyson,  Scott, 
Dickens,  Macaulay,  and  Carlyle?  And  I  think 
I  may  say  that  none  of  these  great  men 
neglected  the  pecuniary  result  of  their  labors. 
Now  and  then  a  man  may  arise  among  us  who 
in  any  calling,  whether  it  be  in  law,  in  physic, 
in  religious  teaching,  in  art,  or  literature,  may 
in  his  professional  enthusiasm  utterly  disregard 
money.  All  honor  to  his  enthusiasm,  and  if  he 
be  wifeless  and  childless  his  disregard  of  the 
great  object  of  man's  work  will  be  blameless. 
But  it  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  a  man  is  a 


396  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

better  man  because  he  despises  money.  Few 
do  so,  and  those  few  in  doing  so  suffer  a  defeat. 
Who  does  not  desire  to  be  hospitable  to  his 
friends,  generous  to  the  poor,  liberal  to  all, 
munificent  to  his  children,  and  to  be  himself 
free  from  the  carking  fear  which  poverty 
creates?  The  subject  will  not  stand  an  argu- 
ment, and  yet  authors  are  told  that  they 
should  disregard  payment  for  their  work  and 
be  content  to  devote  their  unbought  brains  to 
the  welfare  of  the  public.  Brains  that  are  un- 
bought will  never  serve  the  public  much.  Take  , 
away  from  English  authors  their  copyrights, 
and  you  would  very  soon  take  away  from  Eng- 
land her  authors. 

— An  Autobiography:  Anthony  TnoLLcrE 

The  Raw  Material  of  Argumentation.  Before  we  take 
up  the  consideration  of  formal  argumentation,  and  in 
order  that  we  may  the  better  understand  it  when  we 
do,  we  must  consider  the  special  kinds  of  raw  material 
used  in  argumentation  and  the  special  ways  by  which 
they  are  tested  as  to  their  fitness.  As  in  making  some 
machinery  where  strength  and  compactness  are  both 
required,  only  the  best  steel  can  be  used,  and  then  only 
after  it  has  stood  the  most  rigid  tests;  so  here  the  only 
kind  of  material  that  is  suitable  must  be  strong  and 
compact,  for  it  requires  much  of  the  quality  of  force 
to  convince,  and  generally  the  time  allowed  to  do  it  in 
is  limited.  The  material  used  in  argumentation  is  called 
proof — a  very  special  kind  of  material.  Proof  is  made 
from  evidence.    When  sufficient  evidence  of  the  right 


ARGUMENTATION  397 

kind  is  properly  put  together  the  result  is  proof.  We 
shall  next  see  how  to  make  it  out  of  evidence. 

Evidence  and  Not  Evidence.  To  appreciate  what 
constitutes  genuine  evidence  we  must  learn  to  recog- 
nize what  is  not  evidence,  and  at  once  rule  it  out.  In 
argumentation  mere  assertion  of  opinion  is  valueless. 
We  must  avoid  such  expressions  as  "I  think,"  "It 
seems  to  me,"  "I  feel,"  "I  believe,"  and  the  like,  be- 
cause when  we  begin  with  them  we  are  likely  to  make 
assertions  which  we  cannot  verify.  On  the  other  hand, 
sweeping  negations  concerning  our  opponent's  position, 
are  equally  valueless. 

Mr.  Madison's  reply  to  Mr.  Henry  on  the  adoption 
of  the  Constitution  shows  what  kind  of  evidence  is 
really  effective,  and  does  it  in  a  way  that  might  well  be 
emulated : 

"  We  ought,  sir,  to  examine  the  Constitution 
on  its  merits  solely.  We  are  to  inquire  whether 
it  will  promote  the  public  happiness ;  its  apti- 
tude to  produce  this  desirable  object  ought  to 
be  the  exclusive  subject  of  our  present  re- 
searches. In  this  pursuit  we  ought  not  to 
address  our  arguments  to  the  feelings  and  pas- 
sions, but  to  those  understandings  and  judg- 
ments which  were  selected  by  the  people  of 
this  country  to  decide  this  great  question  by 
a  calm  and  rational  investigation. 

"I  hope  that  gentlemen,  in  displaying  their 
abilities  on  this  occasion,  instead  of  giving  opin- 
ions and  making  assertions,  will  condescend  to 
prove  and  demonstrate  by  a  fair  and  regular  dis- 


398  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

cussion.  It  gives  me  pain  to  hear  gentlemen 
continually  distorting  the  natural  construction 
of  language,  for  it  is  sufficient  if  any  human 
construction  can  stand  a  fair  discussion." 
(The  italics  are  ours.) 

Real  evidence  consists  of  the  facts  bearing  upon  the 
subject  and  upon  the  true  inferences  from  them.  By 
facts  we  mean  statements  which  may  be  corroborated; 
by  inferences  we  mean  conclusions  drawn  from  the 
facts  according  to  the  laws  of  induction.  Valuable  as 
facts  often  are,  they  cannot,  during  the  short  time 
available  for  discussion,  be  even  referred  to  individ- 
ually. They  must  be  studied  collectively  before  their 
real  value  can  be  determined.  This  is  where  the  knowl- 
edge of  inductive  reasoning  helps. 

It  frequently  happens  that  facts  may  be  given  during 
a  speech  and  inferences  drawn  from  them  at  the  same 
time.  Burke  does  this  in  the  Conciliation  Speech,  after 
discussing  the  population  of  the  colonies : 

"Whilst  we  spend  our  time  deliberating  on 
the  mode  of  governing  two  millions,  we  shall 
find  we  have  millions  more  to  manage.  Your 
children  do  not  grow  faster  from  infancy  to 
manhood  than  they  spread  from  families  to 
communities,  and  from  villages  to  nations. 

"I  put  this  consideration  of  the  present  and 
growing  numbers  in  the  front  of  our  delibera- 
tion because,  sir,  this  consideration  will  make 
it  evident  to  a  blunter  discernment  than  yours 
that  no  partial,  narrow,  contracted,  pinched, 
occasional  system  will  be  at  all  suitable  to  such 


ARGUMENTATION  399 

an  object.  It  will  show  you  that  it  is  not  to  be 
considered  as  one  of  those  minima  which  are 
out  of  the  eye  and  consideration  of  the  law; 
not  a  paltry  excrescence  of  the  state;  not  a 
mean  dependent,  who  may  be  neglected  with 
little  damage  and  provoked  with  little  danger. 
It  will  prove  that  some  degree  of  care  and  auc- 
tion is  required  in  the  handling  of  such  an 
object;  it  will  show  you  that  you  ought  not, 
in  reason,  to  trifle  with  so  large  a  mass  of  the 
interests  and  feelings  of  the  human  race.  You 
could  at  no  time  do  so  without  guilt,  and  be 
assured  you  will  not  be  able  to  do  it  long  with 
impunity." 

Evidence  of  Fact.  To  be  useful  as  evidence,  a  fact 
must  be  proved  to  be  true.  In  a  court  room,  facts  are 
established  by  the  testimony  of  witnesses  who  must  be 
competent,  unprejudiced,  disinterested,  and  morally 
trustworthy.  Since  the  debater  cannot  summon  wit- 
nesses he  must  do  the  next  best  thing — secure  his  facts 
from  reliable  sources,  sources  that  will  be  accepted  as 
reliable  because  they  are  authoritative.  He  must  go 
to  the  library  and  consult  encyclopedias,  especially 
such  as  Bliss'  New  Encyclopedia  of  Social  Reform,  La- 
lor's  Cyclopedia  of  Political  Science,  Political  Economy, 
and  United  States  History,  and  general  encyclopedias. 
Larned's  History  for  Ready  Reference  is  excellent  for 
historical  subjects.  The  Reader's  Guide  to  Periodical 
Literature  (formerly  Poole's  Index)  will  put  him  in 
touch  with  the  best  magazine  articles,  whose  value  will 
depend  upon  the  standing  of  the  magazines  and  of  the 


400  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

individual  writers.  Many  annuals  or  year  books  will 
be  found  helpful,  such  as  the  World  Almanac,  the  Ameri- 
can Year  Book,  etc. ;  the  Congressional  Record  is  valuable, 
but  the  partisanship  of  the  various  speakers  must  be 
taken  into  account.  Reports  of  the  government  de- 
partments, state  and  national,  are  always  reliable,  as 
are  also  the  reports  of  societies  and  associations  whose 
purpose  is  social  betterment.  It  is  not  enough  to  secure 
facts  for  evidence,  nor  to  say,  in  a  general  way,  "I  have 
heard,"  or  "I  have  read  somewhere";  one  must  be 
able  to  state  definitely  the  source  of  his  material. 

All  we  have  already  said  about  the  importance  of 
gathering  material  is  doubly  important  in  preparing 
for  argumentation.  A  wider  range  of  reading  is  here 
necessary  and  greater  care  is  required  in  evaluating 
the  suitable  material. 

Because  of  the  very  Umited  time  allowed  each 
speaker  in  a  debate  and  because  a  few  good  arguments, 
well  developed  and  forcefully  handled  are  better  than 
many  loosely  handled,  the  process  of  sifting,  weighing, 
comparing,  and  rejecting  material  should  be  carried 
on  until  one  is  sure  he  knows  what  is  best  to  use,  even 
though  he  may  have  had  to  throw  away  four-fifths  of 
his  notes.  Retain  only  the  best,  the  best  to  prove  your 
points,  the  best  for  its  effect  upon  the  audience,  the  best 
to  enable  you  to  be  sincere,  courteous,  and  persuasive 
in  the  presentation  of  your  side. 

To  refer  to  an  argumentative  speech  with  which 
most  are  familiar,  Burke 's  Conciliation  Speech,  we  need 
only  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  Burke  began  to 


ARGUMENTATION  401 

build  up  his  argument  by  citing  definite  statistics  bear- 
ing upon  the  population,  the  commerce,  the  agricul- 
ture, and  the  fisheries  of  the  colonies,  facts  with  which 
all  were  more  or  less  familiar.  Again,  when  accounting 
for  the  character  and  temper  of  the  American  people, 
he  based  his  argument  upon  indisputable  facts:  their 
descent  from  Englishmen,  their  government,  the  relig- 
ion in  the  North,  the  haughty  spirit  in  the  South,  then- 
education  in  the  law,  and  their  remoteness  from  the 
mother  country. 

Facts  are  the  basis  of  argument,  but  they  are  by  no 
means  all  there  is  to  argument.  The  real  complication 
comes  when  one  begins  to  show  the  relation  of  one  fact 
to  another,  to  point  out  the  effect,  or  probable  effect, 
of  facts,  to  draw  inferences  from  them.  People  cannot 
easily  dispute  the  evidence  of  facts;  it  is  easy  to  dis- 
agree about  inferences  from  them,  for  various  infer- 
ences may  be  drawn.  The  real  test  of  the  debater 
comes  when  he  tries  to  reason  from  facts  to  conclusions. 
If  he  does  not  reason  correctly,  according  to  the  laws  of 
logic,  his  conclusions  are  worthless.  Hence  we  must 
consider : 

Evidence  of  Inference,  or  Reasoning  from  Facts.  The 
matter  of  drawing  inferences,  or  conclusions,  from  facts 
is  so  important  and  is  so  commonly  done  wrongly,  that 
some  knowledge  of  logic,  which  is  the  science  of  reason- 
ing, is  necessary  before  we  can  argue,  even  informally, 
with  effectiveness.  A  knowledge  of  logic  enables  one 
to  draw  sound  conclusions  from  groups  of  facts,  to  test 
his  conclusions  as  to  their  validity,  and  also  to  detect 


402  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

flaws  in  the  reasoning  of  his  opponents.  The  three 
commonest  kinds  of  reasoning  are:  induction,  deduc- 
tion, and  analogy. 

Induction.  Induction  is  the  method  of  scientists 
and,  in  its  strictest  form,  includes  an  examination  of 
all  facts  available  before  making  an  inference.  The 
result  is,  then,  a  perfect  induction.  It  is  reasoning  from 
particulars  to  a  general  conclusion,  which  is  accepted 
as  a  fundamental  principle  or  law.  In  this  inductive 
way  the  laws  of  science  have  been  formulated.  It  is  a 
synthetic  process,  combining  and  classifying  all  possible 
data,  and  then  making  an  inference,  or  general  con- 
clusion, which  is  considered  as  incontestably  established. 

It  was  by  this  method  that  the  authorities  of  a  cer- 
tain large  city  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  the  use 
of  antotoxin  for  diphtheria  is  the  best  method  thus  far 
discovered  for  fighting  that  disease.  A  careful  exami- 
nation of  the  records  of  all  cases  of  diphtheria  in  all 
the  hospitals  of  the  city  for  a  year,  when  antitoxin  had 
not  been  used,  showed  that  seventy-seven  cases  out  of 
every  hundred  were  fatal.  That  conclusion  was  reached 
by  induction.  An  equally  careful  study  of  all  the  cases 
of  the  same  disease,  in  the  same  city,  for  another  year, 
when  antitoxin  was  used,  revealed  the  fact  that  seven- 
teen cases  out  of  every  hundred  were  fatal.  This  re- 
sult was  reached  inductively.  In  both  of  these  cases, 
as  in  all  laboratory  experiments,  the  result  was  a  perfect 
induction. 

Lack  of  sufficient  time,  and  the  inability  to  examine 
all  data,  render  it  impossible  to  make  perfect  inductions 


ARGUMENTATION  403 

concerning  such  matters  as  we  have  to  deal  with  in 
debates.  Consequently,  we  have  to  get  along  with 
those  imperfect  inductions  known  as  inferences.  This 
brings  us  into  the  domain  of  argument.  We  must  rest 
content  with  inferences,  but  ever  endeavor  to  make 
the  moral  certainty  they  give  us  as  near  to  absolute 
certainty  as  possible.  This  is  our  business  in  formal 
argumentation :  to  examine  our  facts,  as  many  of  them 
as  possible,  so  carefully  that  our  inferences  from  them 
are  practically  irrefutable.  We  must  generalize,  but 
generalize  with  the  utmost  care.  When  Ruskin  said 
in  Sesame  and  Lilies,  "  There  is  not  one  entirely  heroic 
figure  in  all  his  (Shakespeare's)  plays.  ...  In  his  labored 
and  perfect  plays  you  have  no  hero,"  he  was  making  a 
generalization.  He  does  not,  in  his  discussion,  examine 
every  character;  he  examines  the  principal  ones  and 
enough  of  them  to  substantiate  his  statement,  so  that 
we  are  convinced.  Again  he  says,  "The  catastrophe 
of  every  play  is  caused  always  by  the  folly  or  fault  of 
a  man;  the  redemption,  if  there  be  any,  is  by  the  wis- 
dom and  virtue  of  a  woman  and,  failing  that,  there  is 
none."  That,  too,  is  a  generalization  based  upon  suffi- 
cient individual  cases  to  constitute  proof.  These  two 
illustrations  show  how  inferences  from  facts  become 
greater  evidence  to  establish  proof  than  facts  alone 
could  possibly  be. 

The  Fallacies  of  Induction.  In  order  to  test  the  value 
of  our  inferences,  we  must  be  able  to  detect  the  falla- 
cies, or  faults,  resulting  from  a  wrong  use  of  the  induc- 
tive process.    If  we  test  our  evidence  we  may  find  our 


404  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

own  mistakes  in  time  to  correct  them,  before  making 
our  brief,  and  so  save  the  day.  If  we  do  not  detect  our 
fallacies  the  debaters  of  the  opposing  side  will  thereby 
strengthen  their  side  in  the  same  proportion  that 
they  weaken  ours.  The  time  for  testing  is  while  prepar- 
ing our  evidence. 

Children,  and  even  grown  people,  constantly  general- 
ize from  a  single  experience.  A  pupil  once  asked  the 
present  writer  to  use  a  red  instead  of  a  blue  pencil  in 
correcting  his  themes,  because  he  received  better  marks 
when  a  red  pencil  was  used.  A  blue  pencil  had  been 
used  one  day.  Generalizing  from  too  few  instances  is 
the  commonest  source  of  error.  Many  false  proverbs, 
nonsense  jingles,  and  "wise  sayings,"  are  based  upon 
hasty  generalizations.  Some  one  observes  that  some 
one  else  does  something  for  two  days  in  succession,  and 
immediately  concludes  that  that  person  always  does 
that  thing,  or  never  does  anything  else.  Always  and 
never  should  be  used  with  great  caution  when  making 
inferences.  Many  popular  superstitions,  such  as  those 
about  the  number  thirteen,  Friday,  seeing  the  moon 
over  the  left  shoulder,  a  black  cat  crossing  one's  path, 
and  the  like,  are  false  generalizations  from  insufficient 
observation.  The  commonest  fallacy  of  induction  is  rea- 
soning from  too  few  instances. 

To  specialize  concerning  the  general  statements  just 
made,  we  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  a  cause-and- 
effect  relation  is  often  assumed  when  there  is  no  such 
relation.  Many  so-called  " cures"  are  believed  in  be- 
cause credulous  people  assume  causes  exist  when  there 


ARGUMENTATION  405 

is  only  a  coincidence.  They  jump  at  a  conclusion. 
The  superstitions  mentioned  in  the  preceding  para- 
graph illustrate  this  same  kind  of  error.  In  logic  this 
is  called  the  non  causa  pro  causa  fallacy.  Closely  re- 
lated to  it  is  the  post  hoc  propter  hoc  fallacy,  which  con- 
sists of  assuming  that  because  one  thing  follows  another 
it  is  the  result  of  the  other.  Many  political  speeches, 
in  which  attempts  are  made  to  show  the  benefits  or  the 
evil  effects  of  free  trade  or  of  protection,  abound  in 
fallacies  of  this  kind.  The  advocates  of  free  trade 
attribute  hard  times  to  the  fact  that  their  opponents 
were  in  power;  while  the  advocates  of  protection  seek, 
in  a  similar  way,  to  arouse  public  opinion  against  the 
upholders  of  the  opposite  policy.  The  popularity  of 
widely  advertised  patent  medicines  often  depends  upon 
this  kind  of  fallacy. 

Prejudice  also  leads  to  false  inductions  because  it 
prevents  some  people  from  examining  data  which  they 
fear  might  not  favor  their  side.  Whoever  allows  his 
preconceived  opinions  to  stand  in  the  way  of  getting 
at  the  truth  is  guilty  of  this  kind  of  fallacy  in  its  worst 
form.  Until  he  gets  over  that  bad  habit  he  need  never 
hope  to  be  a  fair-minded  debater.  The  sincere  debater 
is  never  afraid  of  the  truth. 

Deductive  Reasoning.  Deductive  reasoning  is  closely 
related  to  inductive  reasoning,  and  depends  upon  it. 
By  induction  we  infer  that  what  is  true  of  a  large  num- 
ber of  individuals  constituting  a  class  is  true  of  the 
class  as  a  whole;  by  deduction  we  assume,  on  the  other 
hand,  that  what  is  true  of  a  class  as  a  whole  is  also  true 


406  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

of  each  member  of  that  class.  Induction  argues  from 
facts  to  principles,  from  species  to  genus,  from  the 
known  to  the  unknown;  it  is  sometimes  called  a  pos- 
teriori reasoning;  deduction  is  based  upon  the  uni- 
formity of  the  law — the  law  of  cause  and  effect — is  an 
argument  from  principles  to  facts,  from  genus  to  spe- 
cies, from  general  to  particular,  accounting  for  admitted 
facts;  it  is  sometimes  called  a  priori  reasoning.  In- 
duction is  the  more  modern  form  used  in  the  experi- 
mental and  more  progressive  sciences;  deduction  is  the 
more  ancient  and  has  to  do  with  mathematics  and  logic. 
In  view  of  all  these  facts,  and  of  the  other  significant 
fact  that  induction  furnishes  the  principles  used  in 
deduction,  we  should  not  draw  too  sharp  a  dividing 
line  between  the  two  kinds  of  reasoning,  but  rather 
keep  in  mind  how  they  must  be  considered  and  used 
together,  calling  upon  each  method  according  to  its 
fitness  in  individual  cases,  to  test  the  validity  of  our 
evidence. 

The  Syllogism.  The  deductive  method  of  reasoning 
employs  a  very  formal  device  called  the  syllogism,  which 
means  "to  reckon  or  count  together,  to  present  in  com- 
pact, unified  form."  It  consists  of  three  propositions 
called  the  Major  Premise,  the  Minor  Premise,  and  the 
Conclusion.  The  syllogism  rests  upon  the  principle 
that  whatever  is  affirmed  or  denied  of  a  class  must  be 
affirmed  or  denied  concerning  every  member  of  that 
class.  In  the  syllogism,  the  general  principle  usually 
obtained  by  induction,  is  always  the  major  premise; 
the  specific  statement  to  be  tested  by  means  of  the 


ARGUMENTATION  407 

general  principle  is  the  minor  premise;  the  result  is 
the  conclusion.  The  syllogism  is  the  means  whereby 
we  classify  statements  according  to  their  value  and 
their  relation  to  other  statements.  In  order  that  this 
may  be  done  both  statements  must  be  true.  If  either  is 
false  the  conclusion  will  be  false.  Both  premises  must 
be  of  the  same  class;  that  is,  the  minor  premise  must 
be  a  specific  instance  belonging  under  the  general  law 
laid  down  in  the  major  premise.  When  this  is  true  the 
syllogism  is  said  to  stand  the  premise  test. 

The  syllogism  is  also  said  to  have  three  terms  (which 
must  not  be  confused  with  the  premises),  the  major, 
the  minor,  and  the  middle  term.  The  major  term 
forms  the  predicate  of  the  conclusion,  the  minor  term 
forms  the  subject  of  the  conclusion,  the  middle  term 
must  be  in  both  premises  but  not  in  the  conclusion.  Of 
these  the  middle  term  is  the  most  confusing,  since  it 
does  not  appear  by  itself,  is  not  definitely  stated,  but 
is  only  the  common  quality  binding  the  major  and 
minor  terms  together.  Because  it  does  bind  them 
together  it  is  absolutely  essential  in  a  correct  syllogism. 
Note,  for  example,  the  following  syllogism: 

Major  premise :  All  the  pupils  in  the  fourth- 
hour  class  passed  the  examination. 

Minor  premise:  Richard  Burton  is  in  the 
fourth-hour  class. 

Conclusion:  Therefore,  Richard  Burton 
passed  the  examination. 

In  this  syllogism  the  major  term,  which  must  be  the 
predicate  of  the  conclusion,  is  " passed  the  examina- 


408  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

tion";  the  minor  term,  which  must  be  the  subject  of 
the  conclusion,  is  " Richard  Burton";  and  the  middle 
term,  which  must  appear  in  both  premises,  but  not  in 
the  conclusion,  is  " fourth-hour  class."  The  major  pre- 
mise is  a  true  statement  proved  by  the  inductive  method 
of  examining  the  record  of  the  whole  class,  hence  it  is 
a  true  major  premise.  All  that  is  necessary  to  prove 
the  truth  of  the  third  proposition,  "  Richard  Burton 
passed  the  examination,"  is  to  prove  that  he  was  a 
member  of  the  class,  all  of  whose  members  passed  the 
examination.  The  same  process  of  induction  shows 
that  he  was  a  member  of  that  class.  Consequently, 
since  the  syllogism  stands  all  the  tests,  the  conclusion 
must  be  true. 

It  must  not  be  inferred,  because  of  the  simplicity  of 
the  foregoing  illustration,  that  deductive  reasoning  is 
easy.  There  are  many  chances  to  err,  and  people  do 
err  very  frequently  in  using  as  a  major  premise  an  un- 
proved statement;  in  using  as  the  minor  premise  a 
statement  having  no  relation  to  the  major  premise, 
and  hence  failing  to  include  the  necessary  middle  term. 
For  instance,  when  Burke  wished  to  show  that  force 
should  not  be  used  against  the  colonies,  he  said,  "  Amer- 
ica, gentlemen  say,  is  an  object  well  worth  fighting  for. 
Certainly  it  is,  if  fighting  a  people  is  the  best  way  of 
gaining  them."  In  other  words,  Burke  assumes  his 
opponents  to  have  used,  whether  consciously  or  not 
does  not  matter,  some  such  syllogism  as  this : 

Major  premise :   The  best  way  to  gain  colo- 
nial possessions  is  to  use  force. 


ARGUMENTATION  409 

Minor  premise:   We  must  gain  the  control 
of  our  American  colonies. 

Conclusion:  Therefore  we  must  use  force. 

Burke  refuted  the  argument  of  his  opponents  by  giv- 
ing four  reasons  to  prove  that  force  was  not  the  best 
way  to  gain  colonies.  He  proved  the  major  premise  to 
be  false.    That  was  enough. 

The  Enthymeme  or  Incomplete  Syllogism.  Much 
confusion  concerning  the  syllogism  arises  from  the  fact 
that  it  is  often  used  in  incomplete  form,  with  one  or 
both  of  the  premises  suppressed.  This  form  is  known 
as  the  rhetorical  syllogism,  or  enthymeme.  It  is  the 
most  compact  way  in  which  an  argument  can  be  ex- 
pressed; it  is  strong  because  it  is  brief. 

The  use  of  the  syllogism  is  not  artificial  nor  mechani- 
cal. It  is  the  natural  form  in  which  the  reasoning 
faculty  works.  Even  if  the  premises  are  not  stated 
they  are  present  in  the  mind  in  the  act  of  reasoning. 

Most  of  our  statements  are  the  results  of  unconscious 
deductive  reasoning.  If  they  are  not  true,  they  are 
equally  the  results  of  deductive  reasoning,  but  deduc- 
tive reasoning  falsely  done.  One  of  the  commonest  of 
these  errors  is  jumping  at  conclusions,  which  means 
ignoring  one  of  the  premises,  or  even  both.  The  cause 
of  this  wrong  use  of  enthymemes  is  ignorance  of  the 
fact  that  they  are,  after  all,  only  syllogisms  incom- 
pletely stated.  The  remedy  is  to  complete  the  syllo- 
gism, by  supplying  the  missing  premise  or  premises, 
when  the  folly  of  jumping  at  conclusions  will  be  readily 
seen.     The  only  cure  for  loose  thinking  is  to  acquire 


410  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

the  habit  of  logical,  careful  reasoning.  For  instance, 
how  much  less  frequently  would  we  hear  such  expres- 
sions as  "I  don't  know,"  or  "I  cannot,"  if  those  who 
use  them  would  stop  to  think.  A  pupil  says,  "I  cannot 
write  the  required  composition."  It  is  an  incomplete 
syllogism.  It  is  probably  a  false  conclusion,  reached 
by  jumping  at  it,  and  really  expressing  the  opinion  or 
wish  of  one  who  does  not  want  to  do  the  work  and  is 
looking  for  an  excuse.  It  sounds  well  to  say  that  he 
has  been  asked  to  do  an  impossibility,  so  the  boy  says 
he  cannot  do  it  and  tries  to  shift  the  blame  upon  the 
teacher.    But  complete  the  syllogism: 

Major  premise :  I  cannot  write  difficult  com- 
positions. 

Minor  premise :  This  composition  is  difficult. 
Conclusion:  There  I  cannot  write  it. 

Put  it  that  way  before  the  pupil,  and  if  he  has  been 
regularly  in  the  class,  done  his  daily  work,  and  has  any 
self-respect,  he  will  probably  withdraw  his  objections 
and  begin  work.  Confronted  with  the  syllogism  in  com- 
plete form  he  will  be  ashamed  to  admit  the  truth  ex- 
pressed in  the  major  premise,  and  not  so  sure  about 
the  truth  of  the  statement  assumed  in  the  minor 
premise. 

Further  illustration  is  unnecessary.  If  one  would 
overcome  the  habit  of  making  conclusions  carelessly, 
and  so  making  unwarranted  statements,  let  him  learn 
the  good  habit  of  completing  his  enthymemes. 

Fallacies  in  Deduction.    In  testing  the  syllogism  we 


ARGUMENTATION  411 

have  already  indicated  the  common  fallacies  as  to  form. 
We  must  now  point  out  errors  in  substance.  Including 
in  the  major  premise  what  is  to  be  proved  is  of  this 
sort  and  is  called  begging  the  question,  or  arguing  in  a 
circle.  A  statement  does  not  prove  itself.  Such  false 
arguing  is  assuming  what  must  be  proved.  When  a 
lawyer,  trying  to  convict  a  man  of  murder,  speaks  of 
the  man  on  trial  as  if  he  were  a  proved  murderer,  he  is 
begging  the  question.  Again,  when  two  assertions  are 
made  and  each  is  used  to  substantiate  the  other,  the 
reasoning  is  arguing  in  a  circle.  Careless  debaters  and 
stump  speakers  frequently  use  such  fallacies.  The  com- 
mon use  of  because  without  further  argument  is  also 
begging  the  question.    Such  arguing  gets  nowhere. 

Equivocation,  or  a  confusing  of  terms  by  using  words 
in  more  than  one  sense,  is  another  form  of  fallacious 
reasoning.  Such  a  practice  really  means  trying  to  force 
four  terms  into  the  syllogism,  which  must  have  three, 
but  never  more.  The  words  republican  and  democratic 
are  capable  of  two  meanings,  and  are  often  used  am- 
biguously. Such  words  as  right,  state,  church,  and  the 
like,  should  be  specially  defined  to  prevent  ambiguity 
and  equivocation. 

Evading  the  Issue.  Evading  the  issue  is  also  called 
arguing  beside  the  point  and  ignoring  the  question.  It 
may  be  done  carelessly  or  through  trickery.  When,  for 
instance,  one  is  arguing  that  a  certain  candidate  should 
be  elected  district  attorney,  if  he  expatiates  upon  the 
candidate's  skill  in  golf,  or  his  appreciation  of  music, 
instead  of  showing  how  good  a  trial  lawyer  he  is,  he 


412  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

evades  the  issue.  All  he  says  is  beside  the  point.  Ma- 
caulay  shows  his  scorn  for  such  arguing  when,  referring 
to  Charles,  he  says:  "We  charge  him  with  having 
broken  his  coronation  oath,  and  we  are  told  he  kept 
his  marriage  vow!" 

A  common  form  of  evading  the  issue  is  the  argumen- 
tum  ad  hominem,  which  means  getting  personal. 

OTHER  FORMS  OF  REASONING 
A  Priori,  or  Reasoning  from  Cause  to  Effect.  This  is, 
as  the  name  signifies,  reasoning  from  what  has  gone 
before.  It  is  a  special  form  of  deductive  reasoning. 
The  ordinary  forms  already  considered  have  reference 
to  the  present  only.  The  forms  we  now  consider  look 
forward  into  the  future  and  backward  into  the  past. 
When  it  has  been  repeatedly  observed  that  certain  con- 
ditions have  invariably  been  followed  by  the  same  re- 
sults, we  say  a  priori,  "from  what  has  gone  before, " 
that  the  same  causes  will  again  be  followed  by  similar 
results.  The  basis  of  a  priori  reasoning  is  the  regular 
sequence  of  events  which  amounts  to  a  general  law. 
The  general  observation,  made  by  induction,  furnishes 
the  major  premise  and  we  easily  construct  a  syllogism. 
If  we  observe  that  a  hard  frost  in  early  spring  is  fol- 
lowed by  disaster  to  the  garden  plants,  we  soon  learn 
to  expect  disaster  to  follow  such  frosts.  Most  weather 
signs  are  based  upon  a  priori  reasoning.  In  fact,  it  is 
one  of  the  commonest  kinds  of  reasoning  to  which  we 
resort  in  planning  our  course  of  action.  If  we  are  wise, 
we  take  advantage  of  the  regular  sequences  we  have 


ARGUMENTATION  413 

observed,  and  govern  ourselves  accordingly.  If  we 
observe  that  certain  kinds  of  food  do  not  agree  with 
us  we  avoid  them.  In  this  way  we  learn  to  control 
many  things  in  our  lives  by  controlling  the  members 
of  the  sequence.  If  we  know  that  certain  things  always 
follow  certain  other  things,  we  can  prevent  the  effect 
by  avoiding  the  cause. 

A  Posteriori  reasoning  is  the  reverse  of  a  priori.  By 
means  of  this  form  we  argue  from  effect  to  cause.  Here 
again  the  reasoning  is  based  upon  an  observed  sequence. 
To  take  the  same  illustration  used  above — about  the 
frost  and  the  blighted  vegetation — if  we  observe  the 
blighted  condition  some  morning  we  reason  backward 
to  the  conclusion  that  there  must  have  been  a  frost 
during  the  night.  This  method  of  reasoning  is  the  one 
commonly  employed  by  the  writers  of  detective  stories. 
Poe,  Conan  Doyle,  and  Arthur  Reeve,  have  done  the 
best  work  in  this  line.  The  real  charm  of  such  stories 
lies  in  the  pleasure  of  reasoning  back  to  remote  causes 
when,  at  the  first,  we  have  only  results.  Circumstan- 
tial evidence  is  obtained  largely  by  a  posteriori  reason- 
ing; by  looking  for  the  unknown  causes  of  known 
events.  In  the  realm  of  science,  too,  this  kind  of  rea- 
soning has  accomplished  wonders,  especially  in  palaion- 
tology,  by  means  of  which  the  past  of  a  prehistoric  age 
has  been  made  to  give  up  its  secrets.  Except  in  the 
realms  of  science,  however,  this  form  of  reasoning  is 
chiefly  valuable  as  a  means  of  discovering  possible 
causes  whose  validity  must  be  further  tested  by  other  reason- 
ing processes. 


414  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

In  diagnosing  a  case  the  physician  begins  by  using 
the  a  posteriori  method;  in  prescribing  a  remedy  he 
uses  the  a  priori  method  of  reasoning. 

A  priori  and  a  posteriori  reasoning  are  closely  related 
and  should  be  studied  with  that  fact  in  mind. 

Argument  from  Sign.  Some  writers  identify  argu- 
ment from  sign  with  a  posteriori  reasoning,  or  argument 
from  effect  to  cause,  but  we  prefer  to  distinguish  be- 
tween them.  It  is  not  always  true  that  a  sign  is  the 
same  thing  as  a  cause.  We  say  it  will  probably  rain, 
for  the  barometer  has  fallen.  We  do  not  mean  that  the 
falling  of  the  barometer  will  cause  the  rain,  but  that 
the  falling  of  the  barometer  is  an  indication  of  the  work- 
ing of  th£  law  which  affects  the  atmosphere  and  the 
barometer  alike.  Again,  when  we  say  that  school  will 
now  be  dismissed  because  the  clock  has  struck  three, 
we  are  arguing  from  sign.  The  regular  custom  of  the 
school  is  to  dismiss  at  three.  For  some  reason  the  school 
may  delay  its  closing  for  fifteen  minutes.  Then  the 
sign  fails.  The  closing  of  school  usually  accompanies 
the  striking  of  the  clock;  it  is  not  a  result  of  it.  Thus 
we  see  that  argument  from  sign,  while  somewhat  re- 
sembling argument  from  effect  to  cause,  is  not  the 
same.  It  is  based  more  upon  the  law  of  the  association 
of  ideas  than  upon  the  law  of  cause  and  effect.  It 
establishes  probability,  not  proof. 

Argument  from  Example.  Argument  from  example  is 
often  effective,  especially  in  questions  of  policy.  It  con- 
sists of  giving  one  or  more  concrete  examples  of  the 
application  of  a  certain  principle  which  has  been  success- 


ARGUMENTATION  415 

fully  tried  under  similar  conditions.  In  his  Conciliation 
Speech  Burke  uses  the  argument  from  example  when 
he  cites  the  precedents  of  Ireland,  Wales,  Chester,  and 
Durham;  in  which  cases  the  principle  for  which  he  was 
contending  had  been  successfully  applied.  The  chief 
caution  in  using  argument  from  example  is  to  see  that 
the  chosen  example  is  really  appropriate,  that  it  ex- 
actly fits  the  case.  While  such  argument  is  never 
wholly  conclusive,  it  is  often  of  great  value. 

Argument  from  Analogy.  This  form  of  reasoning 
must  be  distinguished  from  argument  from  example, 
which  it  resembles.  Analogy  differs  from  example  in 
that  the  things  compared  belong  to  wholly  different  classes, 
between  which,  however,  there  is  some  one  strong  point  of 
similarity.  The  dissimilarity  in  many  respects  empha- 
sizes the  one  similarity,  and  so  helps  to  drive  the  truth 
home.  The  parable  of  the  sower,  for  instance,  is  a 
comparison  between  the  receptive  qualities  of  the  soil 
and  of  the  minds  of  men.  To  try  to  push  the  compari- 
son too  far  weakens  analogy,  and  should  be  avoided. 

Argument  from  analogy,  like  argument  from  exam- 
ple, is  valuable  by  way  of  illustration  to  establish 
probability;  but  it  is  not  positive  proof  and  should 
never  be  used  except  in  connection  with  other  forms  of 
reasoning.  A  good  example  of  the  misuse  of  analogy 
is  where  Brutus  argues  that  Antony  should  not  be  killed 
along  with  Caesar.  He  says  that  since  Antony  is  but 
the  arm  of  Caesar,  and  since  the  arm  is  powerless  with- 
out the  head,  " wherefore  kill  him?"  Brutus  later  saw 
his  error. 


416  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

A  Fortiori  Argument.  This  form  of  reasoning  resem- 
bles analogy.  The  words  mean  "  f or  a  stronger  reason. '  \ 
The  reference  to  Burke's  argument  from  example  is 
also  an  illustration  of  a  fortiori  reasoning.  He  said: 
"Now  if  the  doctrines  of  policy  contained  in  these  pre- 
ambles, and  the  force  of  these  examples  in  the  acts  of 
parliament  avail  anything,  what  can  be  said  against 
applying  them  to  America?  Are  not  the  people  of 
America  as  much  English  as  the  Welsh?  .  .  .  Are  not  the 
Americans  as  numerous?  Is  America  in  rebellion? 
Wales  was  hardly  ever  free  from  it."  A  fortiori  reason- 
ing is  very  effective.  A  simple  and  capital  example  is, 
"If  the  righteous  scarcely  be  saved,  where  shall  the 
ungodly  and  the  sinner  appear?" 

The  value  of  the  foregoing  forms  of  reasoning  will 
appear  when  we  begin  to  test  the  evidence  we  intend 
to  use  as  proof.  The  real  value  of  our  material  is  not 
fully  and  finally  proved  until  the  test  of  logic  has  been 
applied.  It  is  the  process  of  reasoning  which  enables 
us  to  determine  whether  our  statements  can  be  sub- 
stantiated or  not,  and  if  they  can,  how.  The  reasoning 
process  also  reveals  to  us  the  weakness  of  the  side  we 
are  upholding,  and  enables  us  to  fortify  our  weak 
places;  while  at  the  same  time  it  puts  us  upon  the 
alert  to  discover  the  weaknesses  of  our  opponents  and 
to  refute  their  arguments.  Ability  to  think  clearly, 
closely,  logically,  and  to  continue  the  process  until  we 
have  thought  the  whole  subject  through  to  the  end,  is 
the  only  thing  that  insures  the  strongest  possible  pres- 
entation of  our  material  in  the  form  of  a  brief,  which 


ARGUMENTATION  417 

is  the  finished  product,  as  far  as  thought  goes,  of  effec- 
tive work  in  argumentation. 

Formal  Argumentation.  This  kind  of  discourse  ap- 
proaches an  exact  science  more  nearly  than  any  other. 
In  narration,  description,  and  exposition,  masterful 
writers  are  "  a  law  unto  themselves  ";  in  argumentation 
there  is  no  such  freedom.  Here  the  method  resembles 
that  of  geometry.  As  in  geometry,  so  also  in  argumen- 
tation, the  writer  proceeds  from  certain  known  truths, 
or  axioms,  to  prove  new  propositions.  The  first  im- 
portant fact  to  remember  is,  that  in  argumentation 
mere  assertion  will  not  suffice;  actual  proof  is  de- 
manded. Formal  argumentation  is  the  presentation  of 
logical  proof  in  such  a  manner  as  to  result  in  conviction 
in  the  minds  of  others  as  to  the  truth  or  falseness  of 
the  statement  made  in  a  proposition. 

Discussion  and  Debate.  In  our  consideration  of 
argumentation  we  shall  deal  principally  with  the  debate, 
which  is  very  formal,  having  a  definite  number  of 
speakers  on  each  side  and  allowing  each  speaker  a 
limited  time.  The  discussion  is  less  formal  than  the 
debate  and  more  formal  than  what  we  have  designated 
as  informal  argumentation  in  conversation.  A  hearing 
before  a  city  council  is  a  discussion.  The  council,  for 
instance,  announces  that  there  will  be  a  hearing  at  a 
certain  date  upon  the  general  question,  The  Use  of  the 
School  Buildings  as  Social  Centers.  Anyone  may  par- 
ticipate. The  discussion  may  be  very  close  or  it  may 
be  very  one-sided.  Everyone  takes  the  side  in  which 
he  believes;  while  in  a  debate  some  may  have  to  argue 


418  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

for  the  side  in  which  they  do  not  believe.  The  discus- 
sion is  democratic;  the  debate  is  republican.  In  the 
one,  citizens  speak  as  they  desire  and  if  they  desire; 
in  the  other  certain  representatives  speak. 

The  Proposition.  The  difference  between  a  topic 
and  a  proposition  is  fundamental.  A  topic  need  not  be 
a  sentence;  a  proposition  must  be.  One  may  write  an 
exposition  upon  the  topic  Domestic  Science,  but  he  could 
not  argue  upon  it.  To  bring  it  within  the  realm  of 
argumentation  a  statement  must  be  made  about  it. 
Domestic  Science  should  be  made  compulsory  in  all  high 
schools,  is  a  proposition,  because  it  is  a  challenge.  Some 
believe  it;  others  do  not.  It  separates  people  into  two 
opposing  groups. 

The  proposition  should  be  stated  as  simply  as  pos- 
sible, preferably  in  a  simple  declarative  sentence.  If 
a  complex  sentence  is  necessary  it  should  not  be  much 
involved.  Compound  sentences  should  never  be  used 
to  state  propositions. 

State  the  proposition  so  as  to  have  the  two  sides  as 
nearly  equal  as  possible. 

Remember  that  the  whole  proposition  is  to  be  de- 
bated.   Do  not  debate  about  a  term  in  a  proposition. 

The  Clash  and  the  Issues.  In  every  well-stated 
proposition  there  must  be  ground  for  difference  of  opin- 
ion. This  is  called  the  clash.  The  clash  of  opinion  gives 
rise  to  the  issues.  Without  a  head-on  clash  and  definite 
issues  there  can  be  no  debate.  For  instance,  fifty  years 
ago  there  was  a  decided  clash  over  the  proposition  that 
public  high  schools  should  be  maintained  at  public  ex- 


ARGUMENTATION  419 

pense.  But  times  have  so  changed  the  situation  that 
there  is  no  longer  any  clash.  The  question  has  been 
settled.  There  is  a  clash,  however,  when  it  is  proposed 
to  use  school  buildings  as  social  centers;  there  are 
definite  issues;  the  question  is  debatable. 

Finding  the  Issues.  Where  there  is  a  real  clash  the 
first  logical  step  is  to  find  out  what  the  controversy  is 
about,  what  is  to  be  settled,  what  points  are  at  issue. 
Settling  these  matters  is  called  finding  the  issues,  and 
it  is  fundamental,  the  first  step  toward  final  success. 

Finding  the  issues  necessitates  a  thorough  study  and 
careful  analysis  of  the  whole  subject  concerning  which 
the  proposition  states  one  side.  One  must  have  an 
open  mind,  free  from  prejudices  and  foregone  conclu- 
sions, so  that  he  can  view  both  sides  impartially  and 
discover  the  real  issues  which  are  inherent  in  the  propo- 
sition. Find  them  there.  Do  not  invent  issues;  it  is 
unfair,  illogical,  and  confusing.  Find  the  real  issues 
and  then  evaluate  them,  to  separate  the  main  issues,  or 
material  issues,  from  the  immaterial  ones.  One  cannot 
pick  out  the  main  issues  without  first  finding  all  the 
others  of  any  importance.  Finding  the  issues  at  the 
beginning  of  a  debate  is  as  important  as  finding  the 
issues  before  undertaking  any  important  work  in  life. 
It  is  getting  one's  bearings.  Reading,  thinking,  study- 
ing, comprise  the  work. 

The  easiest  way  to  find  the  issues  is  to  ask  and  an- 
swer a  series  of  questions  about  the  subject  treated  in 
the  proposition.  The  questions  will  vary  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  subject,  but  will  always  be  pertinent 


/ZO  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

to  the  subject.  For  instance,  if  you  are  debating  con- 
cerning some  profession  which  has  been  recommended 
to  you  for  your  life  work — say  teaching — you  will  natu- 
rally ask  yourself  such  questions  as  these,  "  Do  I  possess 
the  natural  qualifications  requisite  in  a  teacher?" 
"What  are  the  opportunities  for  fitting  myself  for  the 
profession?"  "What  are  the  financial  rewards?" 
"What  opportunities  for  promotion  in  this  profession?" 
"What  good  can  I  accomplish  in  the  world  through 
this  profession?  "  Such  questions,  and  others  like  them, 
reveal  the  questioner's  mind  and  show  it  to  be  open  to 
conviction.  If  the  questioner  tries  to  answer  them 
fairly  he  will  find  the  answers  fall  into  two  groups — 
those  which  indicate  reasons  why  he  should  choose 
teaching  and  those  which  point  the  other  way.  The 
questions  show  the  issues;  the  answers  to  them  are 
contentions  (which  may  be  later  used  as  arguments) 
on  the  one  side  or  the  other. 

Proceed  in  a  similar  way  with  any  proposition  by 
asking  and  answering  questions.  The  more  you  study 
the  subject  the  more  value  your  answers  will  be;  the 
more  you  study  the  more  questions  you  can  answer. 
When  you  have  reached  the  point  where  no  more  ques- 
tions suggest  themselves,  or  where  you  find  that  you 
have  already  answered  them,  you  may  conclude  that 
you  have  sufficient  material  and  may  analyze  and  ar- 
range it  sufficiently  to  find  the  mail*  issues. 

Write  all  points  or  reasons  you  have  discovered  or 
thought  out  in  two  columns  called,  respectively,"  Affirm- 
ative Contentions  "  and  "  Negative  Contentions."  Study 


ARGUMENTATION  421 

the  two  columns  to  find  out  if  any  of  the  reasons  you 
have  written  down  are  so  much  alike  that  they  may  be 
combined,  which  are  the  stronger,  which  may  be  included 
as  subordinate  arguments  supporting  the  stronger  ones. 
The  strongest  argument  is  not  the  one  you  can  back 
up  with  the  most  proof,  but  the  one  your  opponent 
will  be  the  least  able  to  refute.  When  you  have  re- 
duced, by  combination  and  subordination,  all  the  af- 
firmative contentions  to  three  or  four,  and  done  the 
same  for  the  negative  side,  you  are  ready  to  contrast 
the  opposing  contentions  and  be  able ,  to  phrase  the 
main  issues.  If  the  process  of  writing  out  the  conten- 
tions has  been  impartially  and  thoroughly  done,  it  will 
generally  be  found  that  the  opposing  contentions  are 
practically  positive  and  negative  answers  to  a  few  im- 
portant questions  which  reveal  the  clash  and  point  out 
the  issues.  Ask  those  questions  and  they  will  state 
the  main  issues  in  such  a  way  as  to  satisfy  both  sides. 
This  process  is  well  called  limiting  the  subject,  and  if  it 
is  well  done  it  tends  to  hold  both  sides  to  the  real 
points  at  issue  and  prevent  digressions. 

The  more  fully  to  illustrate  the  process  of  finding 
the  issues  as  the  first  step  preparatory  to  making  a 
brief  on  both  sides  of  a  proposition,  let  us  take  the  fol- 
lowing, "Resolved,  That  Motion  Picture  Theaters  as 
now  conducted  are  a  valuable  asset  in  a  Community." 
We  assume  a  thorough  study  and  analysis  of  both  sides 
of  the  subject. 

In  the  following  list  of  contentions  we  have  omitted 
the  first  rough  draft,  in  which  the  various  arguments, 


422 


EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 


intellectual,  social,  moral,  etc.,  and  the  minor  divisions, 
would  be  put  down  without  classification.  We  do  this 
to  save  time  and  space  here,  and  give  the  contentions 
as  grouped  under  main  headings  and  with  the  proper 
subdivisions,  to  indicate  the  next  step  in  advance  in 
rinding  the  issues. 


Affirmative  Contentions 

b.   Scientific        expedi- 

tions. 

The  affirmative  contends  that 

c.    Science    applied    to 

motion-picture  theaters,  as  now 

industries: 

conducted,  are  a  valuable  asset 

1.  Manufacturing. 

for  a  community,  for 

2.  Agriculture. 

I.  Motion    Picture    Theaters 

d.   Current  events. 

furnish  inexpensive  amuse- 

e.   Nature  study. 

ment.    (Here  you  would  in- 

f.   Interest  non-reading 

dicate    the    proof    of    the 

class  in  the  world's 

above  statement,  and,  per- 

work. 

haps,   compare  with  more 

Ill .  Motion  Picture  Theaters  are 

expensive  and  less  desirable 

socially  valuable,  for  they 

forms  of  amusement.) 

A.  Help  form  public  opin- 

II. Motion  Picture  Theaters  are 

ion  on 

of  great  educational  value, 

a.    Good  government. 

for 

b.  Public  hygiene: 

A.  They  supplement  school 

1.  Pure  food. 

work,     by     illustrating 

2.  Clean  streets. 

such  subjects  as 

3.  Clean  back  yards. 

a.    History. 

4.  Fly  pest. 

b.   Literature. 

c.    Red  Cross  work. 

c.    Geography. 

d.   Liberty-bond  cam- 

d.   Sciences,  such  as 

paigns,  etc.,  etc. 

1.  Physiography. 

IV.  Motion  Pictures  are  mor- 

2. Physics. 

ally  valuable,  for  they  in- 

3. Biology,  etc. 

culcate  lessons  in 

B.  They   go   further   than 

A.  Heroism. 

the    schools    in    giving 

B.  Patriotism. 

advanced  information 

(The  slacker.) 

through 

C.  Reform,  such  as 

a.   Travelogues. 

a.  Liquor  traffic. 

ARGUMENTATION 


423 


b.  Vice. 

c.  Dope  habit. 

D.  Domestic  life. 

E.  Keeping    people    away 
from  bad  influences. 

Negative  Contentions 

The  negative  contends  that 
Motion  Picture  Theaters,  as  now 
conducted,  are  a  menace  to  the 
public  welfare,  for  the  following 
reasons: 

I.  They  are  physically  harm- 
ful, for 

A.  They  cause  eye  strain. 

B.  Improperly  heated. 

C.  Poorly  ventilated. 

D.  Often  not  equipped  with 
fire  escapes. 

II.  Intellectually    detrimental, 
for 

A.  They  do  not  stimulate 
clear  thinking,  but  su- 
perficial thinking  or 
none  at  all. 

B.  Really  instructive  films 
are  rarely  shown. 

C.  Films  of  educational 
value  are  used  in  schools 

/  and  not  welcomed  by 
theater  patrons.  (On 
the  testimony  of  theater 
managers.) 

D.  What  little  information 
is  given  is  in  such  a 
fragmentary  and  hap- 
hazard way  as  to  render 
it  useless  for  instruction. 

III.  Motion  Picture  Theaters  are 
socially  harmful,  for  they 
persistently  represent: 


A.  Broken  homes. 

B.  Divorces. 

C.  Wrong  ideals  of  fidelity 
to 

a.  The  marriage  tie. 

b.  The  law. 

c.  Religion. 

d.  Social  betterment. 

e.  Selfishness. 

D.  They  overemphasize: 

a.  Vulgarity. 

b.  Cynicism. 

c.  Duplicity  and  trick- 
ery. 

d.  Smart  Aleck  esca- 
pades. 

e.  Cheap  melodrama, 
leading  to  a  craze 
for  adventure. 

IV.  Motion  Picture  Theaters  are 
morally  harmful,  for  they 
often 

A.  Suggest  evil  doings  clev- 
erly, so  that  only  the 
cleverness  is  noticed, 
while  the  evil  is  uncon- 
sciously absorbed. 

B.  Frequent  representa- 
tions of  crime  lead 
the  young  into  the  com- 
mitting of  crime.  (On 
the  testimony  of  police 
courts.) 

C.  Whatever  moral  lessons 
some  films  may  contain 
are  missed  by  the  chil- 
dren, who  go  "just  for 
fun." 

D.  They  give  a  wrong  con- 
ception of  love.  They 
cheapen  it  and  degrade 
it. 


424  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

E.  They  interfere  with  evil  is  no  longer  re- 
moral  and  uplifting  in-  volting. 
stitutions,  such  as  «•  They  become 

a.  The  church.  "regulars"  and 

b.  The  Sabbath.  ™    !onf r    dls" 

c.  Libraries.  .       criminate. 

_    _,  ,         , .       f  c.    In  the  long  run  they 

F.  They  are  deceptive,  for  ,  i 

x '         J  r       '  take     more     money 

.....        .  from    patrons    than 

a.  Mislead  children  by  they  would  gpend  on 

apparent  cheapness.  the  reguiar  drama. 

b.  They  corrupt  taste,  g.  The  managers  confess 
for  that  they  cater  to  the 
1.  They    constantly  opinion  of  their  patrons 

witness     question-  and  not  to  those  who 

able     plays     until  care  for  public  welfare. 

Now,  if  we  examine  the  series  of  arguments  in  the 
"affirmative-contention"  column,  and  select  the  strong- 
est, we  shall,  of  course,  be  limited  to  the  larger  general 
statements,  and  we  find  there  are  four  such:  (I)  They 
furnish  inexpensive  amusement;  (II)  they  have  edu- 
cational value;  (III)  they  are  socially  valuable,  and 
(IV)  they  are  morally  valuable. 

Turning  to  the  " negative-contention"  column,  we 
find  that,  after  classifying  and  subordinating  the  argu- 
ments, we  have  again  four  general  statements :  (I)  They 
are  physically  harmful;  (II)  they  are  intellectually 
detrimental;  (III)  they  are  socially  harmful,  and  (IV) 
they  are  morally  harmful. 

Comparing  these  two  groups  of  opposing  contentions, 
we  find  that  we  have  on  both  sides  arguments  based 
upon  intellectual  considerations,  on  social  effects,  and 
on  moral  effects.  There  is  also  one  argument  upon 
each  side  which  has  no  exact  opposite  on  the  other  side 


ARGUMENTATION  425 

— the  affirmative  argument  for  cheap  amusement,  and 
the  negative  one  for  physical  harmfulness.  Hence,  in 
seeking  the  main  issues  we  ignore  these  two  apparently 
minor  arguments  and  confine  ourselves  to  the  three  on 
each  side  where  there  is  a  real  definite  issue:  the  in- 
tellectual, the  social,  and  the  moral  considerations. 
The  main  issues,  growing  out  of  the  definite  clash  of 
opinion  revealed  by  the  two  sides,  stated  in  question 
form,  as  they  always  should  be,  are: 

I.  Are  Motion  Picture  Theaters,  as  now  con- 
ducted, an  asset  to  a  community  intellectually? 

II.  Are  Motion  Picture  Theaters,  as  now  con- 
ducted, an  asset  to  a  community  socially? 

III.  Are  Motion  Picture  Theaters,  as  now  con- 
ducted, an  asset  to  a  community  morally? 

It  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  all  this  work  is  pre- 
liminary and,  except  the  results  given  in  the  questions 
stating  the  main  issues,  does  not  appear  in  the  brief. 
In  a  debate  where  different  groups  work  out  the  issues 
independently  there  may  not  be  such  agreement,  and 
yet  if  both  sides  are  equally  careful  and  open-minded, 
and  do  not  know  at  first  which  side  they  are  to  defend, 
there  ishould  be  substantial  agreement.  If  one  side 
studies  the  subject  more  thoroughly  it  will  have  the 
advantage  in  the  end  because  it  will  have  proved  its 
ability  to  discover  the  real  issues  and  be  in  a  position 
to  show  the  minor  importance  of  other  issues.  The 
superiority  which  reveals  itself  in  finding  the  real  issues 
will  stand  them  in  good  stead  in  defending  their  side. 

Having  found  the  issues,  we  are  now  ready  to  pre- 


426  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

pare  briefs  on  both  sides  of  the  question.  The  affirma- 
tive changes  the  questions  containing  the  issues  into 
declarative  form,  and  uses  them  as  main  arguments  to 
prove  the  proposition;  while  the  negative  changes  the 
questions  to  declarative  form,  states  them  negatively, 
and  uses  them  to  prove  the  negative  side  of  the 
proposition. 

The  Brief.  Now  that  we  have  learned  what  the 
proposition  is  and  how  to  state  it ;  that  we  have  learned 
what  the  main  issues  are,  and  how  to  find  and  to  state 
them  so  as  to  have  them  express  the  clash  of  opinion — 
we  must  define  the  brief  and  its  parts  and  learn  how  to 
make  it. 

The  brief  is  the  most  highly  specialized,  the  most 
complete,  the  most  formal  of  all  the  outlines  with  which 
we  have  to  deal.  Learn  the  following  definition:  A 
brief  is  a  complete  outline  upon  one  side  of  a  debatable 
question,  stating  the  proposition  together  with  the 
minor  propositions  upon  whose  proof  the  proof  of  the 
main  proposition  depends,  together  with  the  reasons 
for  the  truth  of  the  minor  propositions.  All  parts  of  the 
brief  must  be  so  arranged  as  to  reveal,  at  a  glance,  the 
correlation  of  the  minor  propositions  and  the  proper 
correlation  and  subordination  of  the  reasons  for  the 
truth  of  the  minor  propositions.  Each  proposition  is  a 
complete,  simple,  declarative  sentence. 

PARTS    OF  THE   BRIEF 

A  brief  consists  of  three  distinct  parts:  the  introduc- 
tion, the  brief  proper,  or  body,  and  the  conclusion. 


ARGUMENTATION  427 

The  Introduction  of  the  Brief.  The  introduction  is 
wholly  expository)  it  must  never  contain  any  proof. 
The  six  essential  parts  of  the  introduction  to  the 
brief  are: 

I.  The  Opening.  First  impressions  are  always  im- 
portant. Let  the  first  two  or  three  sentences  be  made 
as  striking  as  possible  in  form,  so  as  to  win  the  attention 
of  the  audience  from  the  outset.  Let  these  sentences 
be  brief,  clear,  forceful,  convincing.  It  is  well  to  point 
out  the  timeliness  of  the  discussion;  its  vital  importance 
to  the  nation,  or  the  city,  or  whatever  group  of  indi- 
viduals is  concerned;  and  the  effect  its  decision  will, 
have.    Make  the  opening  tell. 

II.  The  History  of  the  Question.  Tell  how  the  ques- 
tion arose.  Point  out  the  history  of  various  phases  of 
the  question,  if  possible,  in  the  history  of  the  nation. 
For  instance,  if  the  question  involved  some  aspect  of 
the  Monroe  Doctrine,  it  would  be  well  to  tell  of  the 
origin  of  the  doctrine,  the  instances  when  it  has  been 
applied,  and  enough  of  its  present  bearing  upon  inter- 
national questions  to  make  the  proposed  discussion 
intelligible.  The  amount  of  space  given  to  the  history 
must  always  be  brief  and  the  material  must  be  handled 
with  such  care  as  to  enable  the  debater  to  say  much  in 
few  words. 

III.  Definition.  Most  questions  contain  at  least  one 
term  that  may  be  new  to  the  audience,  or  which  may  be 
capable  of  different  meanings.  All  such  terms  must  be 
carefully  defined  in  terms  other  than  those  used  in 
dictionaries.     The  best  source  of  the  correct  meaning 


428  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

of  terms  is  to  be  found  in  specialists  on  the  subject 
under  discussion.    It  is  always  well  to  give  authorities. 

IV.  Limiting  the  Question.  In  order  to  avoid  digres- 
sions in  discussion  of  irrelevant  matter  and  to  hold  to 
that  which  is  vital,  it  is  customary  to  limit  the  question, 
and  to  state  how  it  is  done  at  this  point  in  the  introduc- 
tion. Any  admissions,  such  as  the  constitutionality  of 
a  question,  should  also  be  noted. 

V.  The  Statement  of  the  Main  Issues.  Here,  for  the 
first  time,  there  appears  in  the  brief  the  result  of  all 
the  study  which  has  enabled  the  debater  to  find  the 
issues.  This  is  the  vital  part  of  the  introduction,  for 
here  we  learn  precisely  what  the  debate  is  about  and 
what  the  method  of  procedure  is  to  be.  State  the  main 
issues  in  the  form  of  questions  to  show  the  debatability 
of  the  opposition;  then  restate  them  in  declarative 
form  as  the  main  arguments  of  the  side. 

In  this  form,  when  it  is  shown  what  each  speaker  is 
to  do,  they  give  the  plan  of  procedure. 

VI.  Plan  of  Procedure.  (The  introduction  should 
be  limited  to  four  minutes,  and  to  still  less  if  possible. 
These  directions  cover  all  kinds  of  questions  and  should 
not  be  considered  essential  in  all  respects  in  regard  to 
every  question.  Define  and  limit,  and  give  the  history 
cf  the  question  as  far  as  occasion  requires,  but  give  heed 
always  to  the  stating  of  the  main  issues,  for  without  them 
the  debate  cannot  proceed  in  a  manner  intelligible  to 
an  ordinary  audience.) 

The  Body  of  the  Brief,  or  Proof.  This  is  the  most  im- 
portant part  of  the  brief,  for  it  is  here  that  the  proposi- 


ARGUMENTATION  429 

tion  is  proved  by  the  affirmative,  or  disproved  by  the 
negative.  In  the  body  of  the  brief  the  main  conten- 
tions, which  have  already  been  found  to  clash  with  the 
contentions  of  the  opposing  side,  are  again  stated.  This 
time,  however,  they  are  stated  as  supporting,  or  minor 
propositions,  proving  the  main  proposition.  They  are 
stated  in  the  form  of  complete,  simple,  declarative  sen- 
tences, and  always  preceded  by  the  word  for  or  because. 

Do  not  use  too  many  supporting  propositions.  Use 
at  least  two;  rarely  more  than  four.  No  matter  how 
many  arguments  may  have  been  used  in  locating  the 
clash,  establishing  the  issues,  and  finding  the  main 
issues,  use  but  few  here.  To  pile  up  arguments  tends 
to  weaken  rather  than  to  strengthen  your  debate.  You 
will  find,  however,  that  all  of  the  really  valuable  mate- 
rial found  while  seeking  the  issues  may  be  used  as 
reasons  to  substantiate  your  supporting  propositions. 

In  order  to  avoid  the  weakening  effect  of  an  anti- 
climax, arrange  your  substantiating  propositions  cli- 
mactically:  the  weakest  first,  then  the  next  strong,  and 
so  on,  reserving  the  strongest  for  the  last. 

Treat  each  substantiating  proposition  in  the  same 
manner  in  which  you  treat  the  main  proposition;  state 
it;  then  state  its  proofs,  preceding  each  proof  by  the 
word  for  or  because. 

A  well-constructed  brief  is  a  good  example  of  deduc- 
tive reasoning:  you  begin  with  your  conclusion  and 
then  show  why  it  is  true,  by  stating  the  minor  proposi- 
tions, which  are  also  proved  by  advancing  evidence. 
Evidence  becomes  proof  when  it  proves. 


430  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

A  well-constructed  brief  shows,  at  a  glance,  the  whole 
line  of  thought,  and  reads  from  left  to  right  in  such  a 
way  as  to  show  how  the  general  statement  of  the  main 
proposition  is  made  clear  and  proved  by  the  use  of  the 
slightly  more  specific  statement  of  the  substantiating 
propositions,  which  are,  in  turn,  clarified  by  still  more 
specific  statements  which  often  include  concrete 
illustrations. 

In  testing  the  value  of  evidence  to  see  whether 
or  not  it  may  be  used  as  proof,  study  the  para- 
graphs on  "The  Evidence  of  Inference' '  that  you  may 
guard  against  false  inferences,  wrong  deductions,  jump- 
ing at  conclusions,  begging  the  question,  etc.  Clear 
thinking,  actual  reasoning,  will  both  enable  you  to  find 
the  best  possible  evidence,  make  it  prove  your  conten- 
tions, and  further  enable  you  to  state  your  case  so  as 
to  make  it  hard,  if  not  impossible,  for  your  opponents  to 
find  flaws  in  your  reasoning. 

Think!    Think!    Think! 

Do  not  forget  to  show  the  coherence  of  your  brief  by 
preceding  each  of  your  proofs  by  the  word  for  or  because. 
Do  not  use  the  words  hence  or  therefore  in  a  brief.  To 
do  so  would  subordinate  your  main  statement  to  the 
rest  of  the  brief;  whereas  your  purpose  should  be  the 
very  obverse,  to  show  that  all  the  rest  is  subordinate  to 
the  main  proposition. 

To  test  the  body  of  a  brief  for  coherence  substitute 
the  words  hence  or  therefore  for  the  words  for  or  because, 
and  read  it  backwards— that  is  from  right  to  left.  If 
your  brief  is  correctly  constructed,  this  reading  will 


ARGUMENTATION  431 

show  the  main  proposition  to  be  the  logical  conclusion 
of  the  whole  series  of  logical  steps  of  reasoning.  In 
other  words,  it  will  be  like  inductive  reasoning  start- 
ing with  a  large  number  of  concrete  facts  and  ending 
with  the  main  proposition  as  the  logical  inference  or 
generalization  from  the  facts.  The  laws  of  unity,  co- 
herence, and  proportion,  are  of  the  utmost  importance 
in  brief  making. 

The  Conclusion.  The  conclusion  is  a  restatement  of 
the  main  arguments.  It  is  permissible  to  preface  the 
summary  by  some  such  words  as  "We  of  the  affirmative 
(or  negative)  have  proved  our  side  by  advancing  the 
following  arguments.  ..."  No  new  material  should  be 
added.  Be  brief.  Be  confident.  Be  persuasive. 
A  Specimen  Brief. 

Resolved,  That  Motion  Picture  Theaters  are  a  valu- 
able Asset  in  a  Community.    (Affirmative.) 

Introduction. 

I.  Opening. 

A.  Timeliness  of  the  question. 

B.  Importance  of  settling  the  question  now. 

a.  Much  criticism,  pro  and  con. 

b.  Only  way  to  stop  discussion  is  to  settle 

the  matter  (Very  brief) 

II.  History  of  the  question. 

A.  Rapid  development  of  Motion  Picture  The- 

aters. 

B.  Changing  attitude. 


432  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

a.  Of  the  people  toward  the  theaters. 

b.  Of  the  theater  managers  toward  the 

public. 

III.  Definition. 

A.  Debate  is  about  theaters;    not  motion  pic- 

tures used  in  schools,  etc. 

B.  Asset  means  " unquestioned  value." 

IV.  Limiting  the  question. 

A.  Both  sides  admit  that  the  discussion  should 

be  limited  to  the  M.  P.  T.  as  an  asset  for 

the  whole  community : 

a.  Those  who  patronize  the  theaters : 

1.  Adults. 

2.  Children. 

b.  Those  who  do  not  patronize  them  but 
are  influenced;  such  as: 

1.  Those  who  cannot  afford  to  go. 

2.  Those  whose  work  is  interfered 

with;  such  as: 

(1)  Churches. 

(2)  Schools. 

B.  It  is  admitted  that  the  M.  P.  T.  has  great 

potential  influence' 

a.  For  good. 

b.  For  evil. 

V.  The  main  issues  are  best  expressed  in  the  following 

questions : 

A.  Are  Motion  Picture  Theaters,  as  now  con- 
ducted, an  asset  to  a  community  intel- 
lectually? 


ARGUMENTATION  433 

B.  Are  Motion  Picture  Theaters,  as  now  con- 

ducted,  an  asset  to  a  community  so- 
cially? and 

C.  Are  Motion  Picture  Theaters,  as  now  con- 

ducted, an  asset  to  a  community  morally? 
VI.  We,  of  the  Affirmative,  believe  they  are  an  asset  to 
a  community  because  they  benefit  the  community  men- 
tally, socially,  and  morally,  consequently  we  offer  the 
following  proof  to  substantiate  our  claims : 

1.  Motion  Picture  Theaters,  as  now  conducted,  are 

of  great  educational  value. 

2.  Motion  Picture  Theaters,  as  now  conducted,  are 

of  great  social  value. 
3..  Motion  Picture  Theaters,  as  now  conducted,  are 
of  great  moral  value. 

Body 

Affirmative 

(Proposition)     "  Motion  Picture  Theaters,  as  now  con- 
ducted, are  an  asset  to  a  community' ' 
because 
I.  They  are  of  great  educational  value,  for 

A.  They  make  school  work  more  interesting, 
because 
a.  They  visualize  some  subjects,  such  as  His- 
tory, Literature,  and  such  sciences  as 
Geography,  Physiography,  Physics, 
Chemistry,  and  Geology.  (See  note, 
next  page). 


434  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

B.  They  extend  and  supplement  school  work, 
because 

a.  They  give  travelogues,  illustrating  life  in 

foreign  countries,  distant  parts  of  our 
own  country  (Alaska),  ocean  trips,  etc.1 

b.  They   recount   scientific   expeditions,    to 

study  geology  in  special  locations,  to 
study  deep-sea  fauna,  to  explore  Arctic 
and  Antarctic  regions.5 

c.  They  show  the  practical  application  of 

science,  in 
Manufacturing  industries,  such  as 
Cotton  Mills,1 
Woollen  Mills, 
Paper  Mills,  and 
Agriculture  (scientific  farming,  study 

of  soil,  rotation  of  crops,  etc. 
Horticulture   (Study  of)   cause  and 

cure  of  tree  diseases). 
Forestry  (reforestation,  etc.). 

d.  They  encourage  nature  study,  for 

1.  They  show  how  flowers  grow, 

2.  They  show  how  cocoons  develop, 

3.  They  make  the  life  processes  intelligi- 

ble, etc. 

e.  They  disseminate  news  of  current  events, 

upon 

Industrial  activities, 


1  In  this  case  and  in  similar  ones  the  debater  would  give  dates  when 
the  plays  were  given  at  several  theaters  to  corroborate  statements. 


ARGUMENTATION  435 

Foreign  events, 

Calamities,  labor  troubles,  etc., 

Political  news. 

II.  They  are  of  great  social  value,  for 

A.  They  help  form  public  opinion,  for 

a.  They  teach  good  citizenship, 

b.  They  support  good  government, 

c.  They  encourage  public  hygiene,  be- 

cause 

1.  They  show  the  value  of  pure 

food  and  good  cooking, 

2.  They  help  promote  clean  back 

yards  (clean-up  day), 

3.  They  help  in  "  swatting  the 

fly  campaigns." 

d.  They  promote  worthy  causes,  Red 

Cross  drives,  Charity  drives,  etc. 

B.  They  furnish  wholesome  amusement  for  all 

classes. 

(Enlarge,  etc.) 

III.  They  are  of  great  moral  value,  because 

A,.  They  inculcate  lessons  in  patriotism,  for 

a.  They  show  what  patriotism  is,  and 

b.  They  emphasize  the  evils  of  being  un- 

true to  one's  country, 

c.  They  show  the  qualities  of  real  heroism. 

B.  They  advocate  reform,  for 

a.  They  show  the  evils  of  drink,  drugs, 
etc. 

C.  They  tend  to  keep  people  away  from  such 


436  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

bad  influences  as  cheap  dance  halls,  pool 
rooms,  etc. 
D.  They  help  domestic  life,  for 

a.  They  keep  the  family  together,  for 

1.  At  the  x.  y.  z.  Theater  last  Satur- 
day night,  there  were  forty- 
seven  families  of  at  least  four. 
(Further  similar  facts,  etc.) 

Negative 

The  introduction  would  be  substantially  the  same  as 
that  for  the  affirmative,  except  in  the  statement  of  the 
arguments  advanced  in  proof  of  the  negative  side. 
They  might  be  stated  as  follows:  We  of  the  negative 
believe  that  the  evils  of  Motion  Picture  Theaters  exceed 
the  benefits,  and  in  proof  of  our  contention  advance 
the  following  arguments: 

I.  Motion  Picture  Theaters  are  physically  harmful; 
II.  Motion  Picture  Theaters  are  intellectually  detri- 
mental; 

III.  Motion  Picture  Theaters  are  socially  harmful;  and 

IV.  Motion  Picture  Theaters,  are  morally  harmful. 

(Body  of  the  brief) 

(Proposition    Motion  Picture  Theaters,  as  now  con- 
ducted, are  not  an  asset  to  a  commun- 
munity,  because: 
I.  Motion  Picture  Theaters  are  physically  harmful,  for 
A.  They  cause  eyestrain,  which  is  proved, 


ARGUMENTATION  437 

a.  The    testimony  of   physicians,  ocu- 
lists, and  opticians. 
(Here,  and  in  similar  cases,  have  exact  data  for  proof.) 

B.  They  are  poorly  ventilated,  because 

a.  Much  illness  directly  traced  to  low- 
ered vitality  due  to  breathing  poi- 
soned air,  in  proof  of  which  is 
1.  The  testimony  of  Dr.  X.  Y.  Z. 

C.  The  buildings  are  often  poorly  heated,  for 

a.  On  such  a  date  Mr.  X.  took  the  tem- 
perature, etc.,  and  his  testimony  is 
vouched  for  by  competent  wit- 
nesses. 

D.  The  buildings  are  frequently  fire-traps,  for 

a.  The  M.  Theater  was  totally  destroyed 

on  March  2,  when  the  fire  com- 
panies proved  useless. 

b.  The  C.  Theater  has  been  condemned 

as  unsafe  by  the  Fire  Department. 
II.  Motion  Picture  Theaters  are  intellectually  detrimen- 
tal, because 
A.  They  tend  toward  superficial  thinking,  or 
none  at  all,  for 

a.  Such  "lines"  as  stimulate  thought 

are  lacking,  as  is  proved 

1.  By  almost  any  film  taken  at 
random. 

b.  They  overstimulate  the  imagination, 

which  is  fatal  to  thinking, 

1 .  Proved  by  quizzing  any ' '  f an. ' ' 


438  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

c.  They  lead  people  to  think  seeing  a 
"movie"  is  equivalent  to  reading 
a  book,  which  is  proved  by  the 
facts  that : 

1.  They  confess  that  they  read 

less, 

2.  They     convince     themselves 

that  reading  is  not  neces- 
sary, until 

3.  They  stop  reading  altogether. 

B.  Really  instructive  films  are  rarely  shown,  be- 

cause 
a.  They  do  not  pay,  because 

1.  Movie   "fans/'   who   largely 

support  the  theaters,  do  not 
want  them,  proved  by  the 
fact  that 

2.  They  stay  away  when  they 

know  such  films  are  fea- 
tured. 

3.  The  managers  frankly  confess 

that  they  do  not  pay. 

C.  What  little  information  they  do  give  is  com- 

paratively useless,  because 

a.  It  is  fragmentary,  and 

b.  It  is  given  in  a  haphazard,  unsystem- 

atic manner,  rendering  it  useless 
for  instruction. 
III.  Motion  Picture  Theaters  are  socially  harmful,  be- 
cause 


ARGUMENTATION  439 

A.  They  are  hostile  to  the  family  (the  basis  of 

society)  because 

a.  They  feature  wrecked  homes   con- 

tinually, 

b.  They  exaggerate  the  commonness  of 

divorce  (which  wrecks  homes), 

c.  They  minimize  the  evil  of  divorce,  for 

1.  Quickly  married  people  are 
soon  divorced,  and  without 
any  compunctions  of  con- 
science, for 

1.  See  such  and  such 
plays. 

d.  Love   is   cheapened   and   vulgarized 

(leading  to  prompt  divorce). 

e.  Elopements  are  glorified,  represented 

as  common,  and  with  just  a  dash 
of  evil  to  make  it  attractive  to  the 
fast  set. 

B.  They  are  hostile  to  the  state,  for 

a.  They  are  hostile  to  the  law  upon 

which  the  state  rests,  for 

1.  They  belittle  the  law  and  all 
authority,  for 

1.  They  make  heroes  of 
lawbreakers,  as  in, 
etc. 

b.  They   are   cynical   toward   agencies 

whose  purpose  is  to  uphold  law  and 
order,  for 


440  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

1.  They   make   fun   of   govern- 
ment agents  trying  to  en- 
force the  eighteenth  amend- 
ment, etc. 
C.  They  are  hostile  to  the  ideal  culture  necessary 
in  a  sane  and  well-ordered  community,  be- 
cause 

a.  They  " feature"  plays  characterized 

by  coarseness  and  vulgarity, 

1.  For  example  (give  names  and 
dates,  etc.,  of  plays  of  the 
kind  referred  to). 

b.  They  "feature"  trickery  and  duplic- 

ity under  the  guise  of  cleverness, 
for 

1.  Xyz  is  a  concrete  example. 

c.  They  "feature"  "Smart  Aleck"  es- 

capades,   which    tend    to    belittle 
honest  effort  and  work;  for  example: 
1.   (Give  concrete  example  with 
comment.) 

d.  They  "feature"   cheap  melodrama, 

often   bordering    upon   burlesque, 
characterized  by  silly  sentimental- 
ity on  the  one  hand,  and  by  law- 
lessness on  the  other;  for  example 
1.  (Give  examples,  as  many  as 
possible.) 
IV.  Motion   Picture    Theaters,  as  now   conducted,    are 
morally  harmful,  because 


ARGUMENTATION  441 

A.  They  tend  to  lower  ethical  ideals  concerning 

virtue,    true    manliness,    goodness,    true 
friendship,  etc.,  for 

a.  They  ridicule  them  as  "old  fogyish" 

and  out  of  date,  etc.,  for 

1.  (Give  concrete  examples  with 
dates,  etc.) 

b.  They  often  seem  to  put  the  stamp  of 

their  approval  upon  " pick-up"  ac- 
quaintances and  the  like,  for 
1.  (Give  concrete  examples.) 

B.  They  cleverly  suggest  evil  by  the  most  effec- 

tive method  of  insinuating  what  they  dare 
not  express,  for 

a.  There  are  frequently  questionable  al- 

lusions, 

b.  There   are   suggestions   of   "  double 

meanings. " 

1.  For  example,  etc. 

C.  They  make  crime  seem  a  commonplace  oc- 

currence, because 

a.  The    "fans,"    being    hardened    and 

coarsened,  are  not  shocked  or  re- 
pulsed by  pictures  representing 
crime, 

b.  Boys  frequently  become  actual  crimi- 

nals, because 

1.  Police  court  judges  testify 
that  crimes  can  be  traced 
to  Motion  Picture  Theaters 


442  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

and,  definitely,  to  plays  de- 
picting crimes,  for 

1.  We  have  definite  evi- 
dence   from    Judge 
Y.  Z.  X. 
2.  Juvenile  courts,  which  have 
concrete  evidence  have  tes- 
tified that  youthful  crimi- 
nals got  started  at  theaters 
where  they  witnessed  plays 
depicting  crimes. 

D.  The  moral  lessons  they  seek  to  impart  are 

wholly  ineffective,  for 

a.  They  are  clumsily  put,  and 

b.  Boys  especially  resent  "preaching" 
•    where  they  go  for  amusement. 

E.  They  interfere  with  institutions  and  agencies 

whose  whole  purpose  is  to  be  uplifting, 
because 

a.  They  have  performances  at  the  same 

hours  that  churches  have  services, 

b.  They    frequently    ridicule    churches 

and  ministers  unfairly, 

c.  They  make  heroes  of  truant  school- 

boys, etc. 

F.  They  are  hypocritical,  deceiving  the  young, 

for 

a.  The  apparent  cheapness  is  not  real 
cheapness,  but  extravagance,  for 
1.  Children  "get  the  habit,"  and 


ARGUMENTATION  443 

become  " regulars/'  and  so 
in  a  year  spend  much  more 
than  they  would  for  the 
regular  drama.  (Give  sta- 
tistics.) 

b.  "Regulars "  constantly  deteriorate,  for 
i  1.  The  kind  of  plays  they  de- 
mand gets  from  worse  to 
worse.     (Give  examples  in 

1  several  cases.) 

2.  Old  " regulars"  confess  they 
no  longer  care  for  the  regu- 
lar drama.  (Give  concrete 
examples.) 

c.  While   professing   to   stand   for   the 

best,  managers  are  really  influenced 
in  their  selection  by  the  perverted 
taste  of  the  regular  patrons,  for 
1..  The  managers  themselves  tes- 
tify that  they  do  not  care 
for  the  moral  element  in  so- 
ciety, but  for  those  who  pay. 

Conclusion 

Wherefore,  we  of  the  negative,  having  proved  that 
Motion-picture  Theaters  are  harmful  physically,  men- 
tally, socially,  and  morally,  claim  that  we  have  satis- 
factorily answered  the  questions  stating  the  issues  in 
the  Negative,  thus  showing  that  Motion-picture  The- 
aters are  more  harmful  than  beneficial. 


444  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

The  Forensic.  The  forensic  is  the  speech  written  out 
in  full,  according  to  the  brief.  It  is  needless  to  say  that 
it  must  follow  the  brief  in  every  particular,  and  that 
especial  attention  must  be  given  to  transitions  and  to 
the  proper  subordination  of  the  minor  arguments  to 
the  major  ones.  There  is  always  a  tendency  to  over- 
state the  minor  matters,  but  this  tendency  must  be 
overcome,  for  time  and  space  are  precious.  The  brief 
will  insure  unity  and  coherence,  but  unusual  care  must 
be  taken  to  secure  the  proper  emphasis.  Make  the 
essential  parts  of  each  argument  stand  out  prominently. 
Make  the  most  of  emphatic  positions.    End  strongly. 

In  most  formal  debates  the  forensic  will  be  written 
out  in  three  separate  parts  by  the  three  speakers,  who 
divide  the  material  as  nearly  as  possible  into  three 
equal  parts.  Each  one  will  follow  the  general  instruc- 
tions given  in  the  preceding  paragraph  and  seek  to  say 
all  he  can  as  clearly  and  as  strongly  as  possible  in  the 
limited  time  at  his  disposal.  Let  the  wording  be  vital, 
showing  that  the  writer  is  fully  alive  to  his  subject,  full 
of  his  subject. 

It  is  well  to  write  out  the  forensic  even  though  it  is 
not  to  be  committed  to  memory.  It  will  help  to  unify 
one's  thoughts.  The  forensic  should  not  be  read  in  a 
debate. 

The  Oral  Development  of  the  Brief.  It  is  generally 
conceded  that  the  most  effective  method  of  conducting 
the  actual  debate  is  not  the  memoriter  method,  for  one 
may  forget,  and  that  is  fatal,  but  the  oral  composition 
method.     The  brief  should  not  only  be  committed  to 


ARGUMENTATION  445 

memory;  it  should  be  so  visualized  that  the  debater 
sees  it  as  a  whole  and  sees  all  its  parts  and  their  rela- 
tions, all  the  time.  Then  let  him  speak  from  the  topics 
of  the  brief.  There  should  be  much  oral  practice  to 
overcome  the  tendency  in  oral  work  to  enlarge  too  much 
and  so  fail  to  cover  the  ground  before  the  time  is  up. 
Team  work  consists  in  each  debater  co-operating  with 
his  colleagues  to  avoid  needless  repetition  and  espe- 
cially in  helping  properly  to  articulate  his  speech  with 
the  other  speeches. 

Refutation.  Many  debates  are  won  by  the  rebuttal 
speeches.  The  reason  is  evident.  The  kinds  of  argu- 
ment we  have  considered  up  to  this  time  are  construc- 
tive and  direct.  They  are  given  as  reasons  proving 
the  truth  of  a  side.  But  in  the  rebuttal,  or  refutation, 
parts  of  a  speech,  one  uses  destructive  arguments  to 
demolish  his  opponent's  defense.  If  he  can  do  it,  while 
not  suffering  his  own  defenses  to  be  demolished,  he  can 
easily  win. 

Planning  for  Rebuttal.  The  first  step  in  planning  for 
rebuttal  is  while  studying  and  analyzing  the  subject 
to  find  the  issues.  If  one  studies  both  sides  impartially 
at  the  beginning,  he  will  discover  the  most  evident  line 
of  defense  the  opposing  side  will  take,  and  get  his  an- 
swers ready.  The  next  thing  to  do  is  to  watch  for  weak 
places  in  his  opponent's  armor,  revealed  during  the 
debate.  If  one  can  discover  a  false  inference,  an  un- 
proved assertion,  or  an  illogical  deduction,  in  his  op- 
ponent's argument,  it  will  afford  a  capital  opportunity 
for  rebuttal.    If  one  can  find  any  weakness  in  an  argu- 


446  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

ment  which  an  opponent  especially  emphasizes,  or  which 
seems  to  be  popular  with  the  audience,  so  much  the 
better.  If  he  can  refute  such  an  argument  it  will  very 
materially  advance  his  side. 

Do  not  try  to  refute  every  argument  of  an  opponent; 
there  is  not  sufficient  time.  What  time  you  have  should 
be  used  in  demolishing  the  few  upon  which  your  op- 
ponents have  relied  the  most. 

Look  out  for  false  analogies.  Analogies  are  not  proof, 
though  they  often  serve  as  good  illustrations.  If  one  is 
used  as  proof,  point  the  fact  out. 

Look  out  for  irrelevant  arguments  that  have  nothing 
to  do  with  the  question  under  debate. 

Look  out  for  cases  of  arguing  in  a  circle,  or  "  begging 
the  question." 

Look  out  for  instances  of  "  equivocation,"  or  using 
words  in  more  than  one  sense. 

Above  all,  look  out  for  instances  of  evading  the  issue 
or  arguing  beside  the  issue  and  ignoring  the  question. 

As  a  rule,  rebuttal  arguments  should  be  recorded  on 
cards,  each  on  a  separate  card,  and  used  in  the  second 
speech,  which  is  devoted  almost  entirely  to  rebuttal. 
Occasionally,  however,  it  is  well  to  include  in  the  brief 
some  argument  which  is  of  the  nature  of  a  rebuttal. 
For  instance,  in  the  brief  on  motion-picture  theaters, 
the  argument  of  the  affirmative,  that  motion-picture 
theaters  offer  cheap  amusement,  might  be  assumed  as 
likely  to  be  presented  so  that  the  negative  argument  is 
really  one  of  refutation  when  it  points  out  that  it  is 
only  apparent  cheapness,  because  people  go  so  often 


i 


ARGUMENTATION  447 

that  they  spend  more  than  they  would  for  the  drama 
if  attended  occasionally.  Then  there  is  the  fact  that 
over-frequent  attendance  results  in  infatuation  and  get- 
ting the  " movie  habit." 

Persuasion.  Persuasion  is  a  worthy  adjunct  to  argu- 
mentation, by  means  of  which  a  debater  may  add  to 
the  force  of  his  proofs.  Like  style,  persuasion  is  the 
man,  It  depends  upon  one's  personality,  his  knowledge 
of  human  nature,  and  his  ability  to  reach  the  emotions 
of  his  hearers.  It  is  a  special  use  of  the  rhetorical 
quality  of  force  combined  with  the  somewhat  different 
quality  of  oratorical  force  which  may  be  said  to  result 
from  one's  voice,  his  manner,  his  self-mastery,  his  mas- 
tery of  his  subject,  and  his  interest  in  his  audience. 
The  persuasive  speaker  knows  how  to  adapt  himself  to 
his  audience,  without  condescension,  so  as  to  win  their 
confidence.  His  sincerity  must  be  genuine  and  evident. 
He  must  be  in  earnest.  He  must  feel  what  he  says  so 
deeply  that  his  hearers  will  share  his  feeling.  He  must 
use  words  of  large  connotation,  thus  appealing  to  the 
imaginations  of  his  hearers  through  the  power  of  sug- 
gestion. If  a  speaker  can  combine  all  these  qualities 
Ins  manner  of  delivery  will  greatly  add  to  his  arguments 
and  help  him  win,  if  not  in  the  mind  of  his  judges,  at 
least  in  the  hearts  of  the  audience. 

Suggestive  Exercises  in  Argumentation 

I.  Practice  informal  argumentation  by  finding  real  arguments 
for  and  against  commonly  discussed  theories  concerning  matters  of 
everyday  conversation,  such  as:  proposals  for  city  improvement, 
enlargement  of  the  school  building,  municipal  control,  municipal 


448  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

ownership,  commission  government,  etc.  Be  careful  to  distinguish 
between  real  arguments  and  mere  opinions,  prejudices,  personal 
preferences,  and  the  like. 

11.  Study  the  same  subjects  further  and  then  form  debatable 
propositions  upon  them.  As  far  as  possible,  state  the  propositions 
so  that  the  sides  are  equally  debatable.  State  the  proposition  as 
simply  as  possible. 

III.  Practice  finding  the  issues  by  the  method  already  explained 
and  illustrated,  preparatory  to  making  briefs  for  formal  argumenta- 
tion upon  the  following  propositions  (change  the  wording  if  you  de- 
sire) : 

1.  The  Pen  is  Mightier  Than  the  Sword. 

2.  The  Study  of  Literature  Offers  More  Cultural  Advan- 
tages Than  the  Study  of  History. 

3.  In  the  Highest  Sense,  Burke's  Conciliation  Speech  Was 
Successful.  , 

4.  Separate  High  Schools  for  Boys  and  Girls  Should  Ee 
Maintained  in  This  City. 

5.  Public  Schools  Are  More  in  Harmony  with  Democratic 
Principles  Than  Private  Schools. 

6.  The  Demand  for  Patriotism  Has  Not  Decreased  Since 
the  Ending  of  the  Great  War. 

7.  The  Professional  Politician  is  a  Detriment  to  the 
Nation. 

8.  Every  Woman  Should  Be  Trained  to  Earn  Her  Own 
Living. 

9.  The  Study  of  Poetry  is  a  Safeguard  Against  the  Material- 
izing Tendencies  of  Scientific  and  Industrial  Education. 

10.  Athletics  Should  Be  So  Reorganized  as  to  Make  Them 
a  Sport  for  all  instead  of  a  mere  Spectacle. 

11.      The  Death  Penalty  should  be  Abolished. 

12.  The  Jury  System  should  be  Abolished. 

13.  Divorce  Laws  should  be  made  Uniform  throughout  the 
States. 

14.  Spelling  Reform  should  not  be  Advocated. 

15.  The  Honor  System  in  Examinations  should  be  confined 
to  the  Colleges. 

16.  School  Initials,  or  an  equivalent,  should  not  be  con- 
fined to  Athletics,  but  should  be  granted  for  scholarship,  for 
oratory,  for  debating,  and  for  general  excellence  in  school 
activities. 


ARGUMENTATION  449 

17.  The  time  is  ripe  for  the  United  States  to  develop  a 
Merchant  Marine. 

18.  The  Federal  Reserve  Bank  System  has  Justified  itself. 

19.  If  a  boy  has  a  secondary  school  education,  two  years  of 
properly  supervised  foreign  travel  would  do  as  much  to  fit 
him  for  life  as  a  college  education. 

20.  The  "Osborne"  Prison  Reform  Movement  has  Justified 
itself. 

21.  Secret  Societies  should  be  debarred  from  secondary 
schools. 

22.  The  Monroe  Doctrine  has  Outlived  its  Usefulness. 

23.  School  Athletes  should  not  be  given  Suits  or  Sweaters. 

24.  The  Income  from  Athletics  should  be  used  for  all 
School  Activities. 

25.  Honor  Pupuls  (those  having  an  average  of  90  per  cent.) 
should  be  exempted  from  final  Examinations. 

26.  School  credit  should  be  given  for  active  participation 
in  extra  curriculum  intellectual  activities. 

27.  Restricted  Vivisection  is  Justifiable. 

28.  Compulsory  Vaccination  is  Justifiable. 

29.  Citizens  who  habitually  refuse  to  vote  should  be 
disfranchised! 

30.  The  Laboratory  Method  of  Teaching  civics  should  be 
Compulsory. 

The  list  given  above  is  merely  suggestive.  Pupils  should  select 
topics  and  put  them  into  debatable  form.  For  the  sake  of  practice, 
so-called  worn-out  topics  should  not  be  ignored.  They  are  always 
suggestive.  On  the  other  hand,  topics  of  living  and  present  interest 
should  be  especially  studied  to  keep  abreast  of  the  times  and  to 
insure  greater  interest  in  argumentation. 

IV.  Practice  making  briefs,  using  the  material  gathered  in  finding 
the  issues,  upon  at  least  five  of  the  above  propositions.  Make  briefs 
for  both  affirmative  and  negative  sides. 

V.  Test  your  arguments  by  applying  the  processes  of  reasoning. 
See  if  you  can  discover  any  of  the  common  violations  of  the  in- 
ductive method. 

Test  for  errors  in  deduction,  errors  in  the  use  of  the  syllogism  and 
the  incomplete  syllogism.  Look  for  such  violations  of  logic  as 
" begging  the  question"  or  "arguing  in  a  circle,"  equivocation, 
evading  the  issue,  and  jumping  at  conclusions. 

When  in  doubt  about  an  incomplete  syllogism,  complete  it. 


450  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

Practice  making  correct  syllogisms,  giving  especial  attention  to 
the  middle  term.     Beware  "the  undistributed  middle." 

Beware  of  false  analogies. 

Read  Poe's  Mystery  of  Marie  Roget  for  an  excellent  example  of 
refutation.     Seek  other  illustrations  of  refutation. 

Remember  that  learning  to  find  errors  in  your  own  reasoning  is 
the  best  way  to  learn  to  detect  the  weakness  in  your  opponent's 
argumentation;  that  the  best  kind  of  refutation  is  to  show  the 
arguments  of  the  opposing  side  to  contain  flaws  in  reasoning.  If 
you  can  show  that  your  own  presentation  is  free  from  errors,  so 
much  the  better.  The  strongest  argument  is  always  the  one  that 
your  opponent  finds  it  hardest  to  refute. 

VI.  Take  any  brief  argumentative  passage  from  a  speech,  such 
as  may  be  found  in  the  World's  Famous  Orations  or  in  almost  any 
collection  of  speeches,  and  construct  a  brief  from  the  material  there 
found.  This  method  of  brief-making  will  be  found  most  valuable 
in  learning  to  make  your  own  briefs.  Such  brief-making  from 
other's  speeches,  moreover,  familiarizes  one  with  a  form  of  exercise 
common  in  examinations. 

VII.  Test  your  brief  by  applying  the  rhetorical  principles, 
especially  coherence  and  proportion.  See  that  your  main  headings 
are  properly  correlated, — that  they  all  bear  the  same  relation  to 
the  main  proposition, — and  that  the  minor  propositions  are  prop- 
erly subordinated  to  the  main  propositions  and  properly  correlated 
with  each  other.  You  should  acquire  such  proficiency  in  brief- 
making  that  you  can  tell,  at  a  glance,  that  your  brief  corresponds 
to  the  requirements  set  forth  in  the  definition  of  a  brief. 

VIII.  Finally,  substitute  the  word  hence  for  because,  in  your 
brief,  and  read  it  backward,  from  right  to  left,  thereby  submitting 
your  work  in  deduction  to  the  inductive  test.  If  the  work  stands 
this  test  it  is  a  good  finished  product  of  effective  expression  in 
argumentation. 


CHAPTER  XI 
THE  USE   OF  FIGURES    OF  SPEECH 

The  aim  of  rhetoric  is  to  make  expression  clear,  force- 
ful, and  elegant,  that  it  may  be  interesting.  Besides 
the  devices  already  considered,  there  remains  another 
of  great  effectiveness:  the  use  of  words  in  a  figurative 
sense.  Whenever  a  word  is  used  in  any  other  than  its 
plain,  matter-of-fact,  and  literal  meaning,  it  becomes 
figurative.  A  figure  of  speech  is  any  use  of  a  word  or 
group  of  words  in  a  way  other  than  literal  for  the  sake 
of  greater  effectiveness  through  an  appeal  to  the 
imagination. 

Such  a  use  of  words  is  not,  as  might  at  first  seem  to 
be  the  case,  unnatural  and  affected.  The  Indians  in 
their  savage  state  abounded  in  figurative  expressions. 
Such  usage  is  a  natural  extension  of  the  power  of  a 
word.  It  shows  that  words  derive  a  large  part  of  then- 
force  from  their  relations  with  other  words.  It  gives  a 
large  connotation  to  words.  To  use  figures  of  speech 
well  one  must  have  an  active  imagination,  quick  per- 
ception, and  good  judgment.  He  must  see  similarities 
and  differences  between  what  he  is  saying  and  what  he 
is  not  saying,  but  of  which  he  is  thinking.  Hence  the 
large  connotation. 

Figures  of  speech  likewise  appeal  to  the  imagination 

451 


452  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

of  the  reader  and  listener.  To  imaginative  readers  and 
listeners  words  are  immediately  seen  to  go  far  beyond 
the  bare  statement  of  facts;  they  accumulate  new 
meanings,  larger,  and  often  quite  different  from  what 
they  were  supposed  to  have.  They  become  pictur- 
esque, suggestive.  Some  words  have  been  called  "  faded 
metaphors''  because  of  the  original  picturesqueness  of 
their  meaning.  The  amount  of  meaning  figures  have 
depends  upon  one's  ability  to  take  suggestions  and  to 
complete  pictures  for  himself.  People  of  poetic  tem- 
perament are  the  most  susceptible  to  figurative 
language. 

While  caution  must  be  used  to  prevent  an  overdoing 
of  the  process  of  becoming  striking  and  effective  by 
using  inappropriate,  exaggerated,  or  mixed  figures, 
there  is  little  danger  of  this  perversion  of  a  great  power 
if  one  goes  about  it  in  the  right  way. 

Figures  of  speech,  when  studied  objectively,  become 
mere  objects  of  knowledge,  such  knowledge  as  puffs  up 
and  makes  one  self-conscious.  The  old  way  of  studying 
this  phase  of  rhetoric  was  to  begin,  and  often  end,  with 
learning  definitions  of  figures  of  speech  and  then  in  try- 
ing to  recognize  them  in  one's  reading.  After  such 
training,  if  one  tries  to  use  figures  of  speech,  he  is  apt 
to  be  so  conscious  of  his  effort  that  he  exaggerates  it, 
becomes  affected  and  unnatural,  and  so  defeats  his  own 
purpose.  Perchance,  he  says,  "The  pale  hand  of  death 
stalked  into  our  midst  last  week  and  fastened  its  cruel 
eyes  on  little  Mary,"  and  instead  of  becoming  effective 
he  makes  himself  ridiculous.     It  is  such  a  misuse  of 


THE  USE  OF  FIGURES  OF  SPEECH  453 

figurative  language  that  has  led  to  the  misconception 
of  rhetoric  on  the  part  of  those  who  speak  of  all  bom- 
bastic, over-flowery  language,  as  rhetorical.  This  mis- 
take, however,  is  never  made  by  those  who  know  that 
all  means  used  by  rhetoric  are  for  the  sake  of  those 
essentials  of  all  expression — clearness,  force  and  ele- 
gance, and  interest. 

The  proper  way  to  learn  to  enrich  one's  language  by 
making  it  figurative  is  to  work  from  within,  to  stimu- 
late the  imagination,  to  see  and  feel  all  that  is  suggested 
by  a  word,  and  then  speak  naturally.  Figures  of  speech 
will  suggest  themselves  and  will  probably  be  apt  and 
appropriate.  If  good  taste  and  a  trained  mind  are 
brought  to  bear  upon  these  figures  they  will  not  become 
11  mixed"  nor  too  numerous. 

The  oft-quoted  words  " comparisons  are  odious" 
should  not  be  taken  too  seriously,  for  it  would  mean 
the  destruction  of  the  imagination.  In  the  realm  of 
rhetoric  the  habit  of  making  comparisons  is  essential. 
Dr.  McCosh  says  in  his  Psychology,  "By  comparison 
we  discover  the  relations  of  things,  discover  a  univer- 
sal interdependence,  and  extend  our  knowledge  indefi- 
nitely, upward  and  downward,  and  all  around,  and 
still  are  among  realities."  The  act  of  making  compari- 
sons is  fundamentally  psychological.  The  active  mind 
must  compare.  The  law  of  association  of  ideas  must 
assert  itself;  it  will  see  resemblances  or  differences,  but 
principally  resemblances.  The  more  active  one's  mind 
is  the  more  resemblances  it  will  see;  the  better  com- 
parisons it  will  make. 


454  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

It  is  through  the  imagination  that  this  is  done.  The 
imagination  is  the  picturing,  the  reimaging  power.  One 
thing  calls  up  something  else  that  has  been  associated 
with  it,  or  is  like  it,  or  suggested  by  it.  So  it  naturally 
follows  that  poets,  who  are  most  imaginative,  use  more 
comparisons,  use  more  figures  of  speech.  But  prose, 
too,  would  lose  more  than  half  its  force  and  elegance  if 
such  helpful  aids  as  figures  of  speech  were  abandoned. 

Since  the  tendency  to  make  comparisons  is  such  a 
natural  trait  of  the  mind,  it  is  not  surprising  that  most 
of  the  commonly  used  figures  of  speech  are  based  upon 
comparisons  expressed  or  understood.  It  must  be  noted 
that  the  less  formal  the  comparison  the  more  figurative 
the  usage  becomes. 

The  figures  based  upon  comparisons  are  simile,  meta- 
phor, allegory,  personification,  apostrophe,  allusion, 
epithet,  and  onomatopoeia.  As  they  are  defined  and 
illustrated,  it  will  be  seen  that  each,  in  its  own  way, 
stirs  the  imagination  and  so  secures  its  aid  in  helping 
the  understanding  of  the  reader. 

Simile.  A  simile,  from  the  Latin  word  meaning 
"like,"  is  an  expressed  comparison  between  unlike 
things  having  some  characteristic  in  common.  The 
comparison  is  usually  made  with  something  better 
known,  and  is  introduced  by  such  words  as  as,  like,  so, 
and  the  comparative  degree  of  adjectives  and  adverbs. 
The  simile  differs  from  the  literal  comparison  in  that 
the  literal  comparison  is  between  things  of  the  same 
class,  while  in  the  simile  things  of  different  classes  are 
compared,  where  there  is  but  one  aspect  of  similarity. 


THE  USE  OF  FIGURES  OF  SPEECH  455 

"Like  an  army  defeated 
The  snow  hath  retreated." — Wordswokth 

"As  for  man,  his  days  are  as  grass; 
As  a  flower  of  the  field,  so  he  flourisheth." — Psalm  ciii 
"Wisdom  is  more  precious  than  rubies:" — Prov.  iii  :  15 

Metaphor.    The  metaphor  does  not  state  a  likeness; 

it  assumes  it.     It  is  an  implied  comparison  between 

things  essentially  different.    It  never  uses  introductory 

words.    The  metaphor  is  the  commonest  of  all  figures, 

and  as  a  result  all  figurative  language  is  often  referred 

to  as  metaphorical.    Whenever  a  word  is  given  a  new 

meaning,  it  becomes,  for  a  time,  a  metaphor.    Hence, 

metaphors  are  generally  short,  consisting  of  a  single 

word. 

"With  its  unemptied  cloud  of  gentle  rain 
Is  an  eternal  April  to  the  ground, 
Making  it  one  emerald." 

— Childe  Harold:  Byron 

"A  sea  of  glory  streams  along  the  Alpine  height." 

— Childe  Harold:  Byron 

"Even  yet  thou  art  to  me 
No  bird,  but  an  invisible  thing, 
A  voice,  a  mystery; ' ' 

— To  the  Cuckoo:  Wordsworth 

Such  expressions  as  the  "game  of  life,"  the  " social 
lion,"  his  "voice  was  a  silver  stream,"  and  "thy  wreck 
a  glory,"  are  metaphors. 

While  a  series  of  good  metaphors  is  permissible,  cau- 
tion is  necessary  lest  one  so  mix  them  as  to  make  his 
language  ridiculous.  Care  must  also  be  taken  to  pre- 
vent mixing  metaphors  with  literal  statements.     Do 


456  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

not  say,  "The  strong  arm  of  the  law  is  marching 
through  the  land  breathing  out  fire  and  pestilence." 

In  selecting  metaphors  be  careful  to  avoid  trite  and 
worn-out  expressions,  hackneyed  ones,  grotesque  ones, 
and  all  such  as  are  too  violent  or  so  striking  as  to  at- 
tract attention  unduly  to  themselves.  The  metaphor 
makes  an  appeal  to  the  imagination,  but  even  the 
imagination  should  not  be  overtaxed.  Overdeveloped 
metaphors,  with  useless  details,  should  also  be  avoided. 
They  do  not  help;  they  hinder. 

Allegory.  The  allegory,  on  the  other  hand,  is  a  pur- 
posely and  properly  extended  metaphor.  It  may  take 
the  form  of  a  fable;  a  parable,  as  in  the  Bible;  or  a 
whole  book,  like  Bunyan's  Pilgrim's  Progress  or  Spen- 
ser's Faery  Queene,  or  a  morality  play  like  Everyman. 
There  is  always  a  "hidden  meaning,"  a  deep  spiritual 
or  moral  truth  which  does  not  appear  upon  the  surface, 
but  which  is  evident  upon  thought  when  the  meta- 
phorical character  of  the  story  as  a  whole  is  taken  into 
account. 

The  allegory  is,  on  the  whole,  going  out  of  use  be- 
cause of  its  mechanical  tendencies.  But  over  against 
this  fact  must  be  set  the  other,  that  there  has  been  a 
marked  revival  of  morality  plays  which  are  more  or  less 
allegorical  in  structure.  Examples  are  The  Blue  Bird 
and  The  Servant  in  the  House. 

While  the  pupil  should  know  what  the  allegory  is  he 
should  not  be  ambitious  to  employ  it. 

Personification.  Personification  is  also  closely  akin 
to  the  metaphor,  but  it  goes  further  than  an  ordinary 


THE  USE  OF  FIGURES  OF  SPEECH  457 

metaphor,  for  it  gives  life  and  the  attributes  of  life  to 
inanimate  things,  and  higher  life  to  animate  things. 
Personification  is  a  most  natural  figure  of  speech  and 
the  first  one  children  employ.  They  personify  their 
dolls,  their  pets,  and  almost  everything  with  which 
they  have  to  do.  Personification  is  most  common  in 
fables,  especially  animal  stories,  and  is  the  basis  of 
allegory.  By  means  of  personification  the  most  ab- 
stract conceptions  are  made  to  teem  with  life.  Witness 
Milton's  L' Allegro  and  II  Penseroso.  Because  of  the 
vivifying  powers  of  personification  they  are  most  effec- 
tive. Personified  words  are  often  capitalized. 
Examples  of  personification : 

"  Nature  never  did  betray 
The  heart  that  loved  her;" 

— Tintern  Abbey:  Wordsworth 

"The  Spouseless  Adriatic  mourns  her  lord." 

— Childe  Harold:  Byron 

"But  Nature  ne'er  could  find  the  way 
Into  the  heart  of  Peter  Bell." 

— Peter  Bell:  Wordsworth 

"Praise  the  good  log  fire;  Winter  howls  without!" 

— The  Tivo  Poets  of  Croisic:  Browning 

Apostrophe.  Apostrophe  is  like  personification  in 
that  it  attributes  fife  to  lifeless  things;  but  it  goes 
further  in  that  it  addresses,  directly  and  passionately, 
the  absent  as  if  present,  the  dead  as  if  alive.  This 
figure  is  used  especially  in  poetry,  for  which  it  is  pecul- 
iarly suited  because  of  its  strong  demand  upon  the 
imagination.    It  is  also  quite  common  in  prose.    Apos- 


158  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

trophe  means  a  "turning  aside/'  and,  as  one  should  not 
turn  aside  except  for  a  worthy  cause,  nothing  but  lofty 
subjects  are  suitable  to  be  apostrophized. 

Examples:  Two  of  the  most  famous  apostrophes  in 
literature  are  Byron's  Apostrophe  to  the  Ocean  and  Shel- 
ley's To  A  Skylark.  Byron  uses  the  figure,  especially 
in  Childe  Harold,  in  his  impassioned  descriptions: 

"Oh  Time,  the  beautifier  of  the  dead, 
Adorner  of  the  ruin,  comforter 
And  only  healer  when  the  heart  hath  bled!" 

"Oh  Rome!  my  country!  city  of  the  soul!" 

"Ungrateful  Florence!     Dante  sleeps  afar, 
Like  Scipio,  buried  by  the  unbraiding  shore." 

— Childe  Harold:  Byron 

"Come  back  into  memory,  like  as  thou  wert 
in  the  dayspring  of  thy  fancies,  with  hope  like 
a  fiery  column  before  thee — the  dark  pillar  not 
yet  turned — Samuel  Taylor  Coleridge — logi- 
cian, metaphysician,  bard!" 

— Essays  of  Elia:  Charles  Lamb 

Allusion.  Allusion  is  the  figure  by  means  of 
which  a  sort  of  comparison  is  made  by  referring 
to  a  supposedly  familiar  name  or  fact  in  history  or 
literature.  Such  reference  differs  from  the  use  of  an 
illustration  in  that  it  is  less  formal.  Poetry  abounds  in 
allusions.  Milton  uses  so  many  that  present-day  stu- 
dents are  confused  at  first.  It  should  be  remembered, 
however,  that  when  Milton  wrote,  classical  allusions 
were  the  most  natural  kind  to  make.  Shakespeare,  too, 
uses  allusion  very  frequently. 


THE  USE  OF  FIGURES  OF  SPEECH  459 

"There  let  Hymen  oft  appear. 

Lap  me  in  soft  Lydian  airs." 

— V Allegro:  Milton 

"Or  call  up  him  that  left  half -told 
The  story  of  Cambuscan  bold, 
Of  Camball,  and  of  Algarsife, 
And  who  had  Canace  to  wife." 

— II  Penseroso:  Milton 

"Listen  and  appear  to  us, 

•  In  the  name  of  great  Oceanus; 
By  the  earth-shaking  Neptune's  mace, 
And  Tethys'  grave  majestic  pace; 
By  hoary  Nereus'  wrinkled  look, 
And  the  Carpathian  wizard's  hook; 
By  scaly  Triton's  winding  shell, 
And  old  soothsaying  Glaucus'  spell." 

— Comus:  Milton 

"See  what  a  grace  was  seated  on  this  brow; 
Hyperion's  curls,  the  front  of  Jove  himself, 
In  eye  like  Mars,  to  threaten  and  command; 
A  station  like  the  herald  Mercury." 

— Hamlet:    Shakespeare 

"A  Daniel  come  to  judgment!  yea,  a  Daniel!" 

— Merchant  of  Venice:  Shakespeare 

"In  Lamb's  allusions  the  homely  common- 
place is  usually  confronted  with  some  fancy, 
fair  or  bold;  the  hard  reality  of  some  ideal 
beauty.  The  steward  who  bustles  about  on 
the  old  Margate  hoy  is  like  Ariel,  'flaming  at 
once  about  all  the  parts  of  the  deck ' ;  the  burly 
cripple  without  legs,  who  wheels  himself  about 
the  streets  in  a  go-cart,  is  '  a  grand  fragment, 
as  good  as  an  Elgin  marble.'" 

Charles  Lamb:  C.  T.  Winchester 


460  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

Epithet.  An  epithet  is  generally  a  descriptive  ad- 
jective used,  not  to  give  more  information,  but  for 
ornament.  "Alfred  the  Great."  Such  a  figure  may  be 
said  to  compare  the  person  or  thing  with  an  ideal. 

Onomatopoeia.  Onomatopoeia  is  a  rarely  used  figure 
by  means  of  which  the  writer  seeks  words  whose  sounds 
imitate  the  sense.  It  is  a  comparison  between  sense 
and  sound.  It  is  especially  useful  in  poetry.  Milton 
speaks  of  the  curfew  bell  as  "  swinging  slow  with  sullen 
roar,"  and  "the  waters  murmuring,"  and  we  uncon- 
sciously think  of  bells  and  murmuring  waters.  Poe's 
Bells  is,  of  course,  the  most  famous  attempt  at  using 
this  figure,  because  he  makes  the  whole  poem  ono- 
matopoeic. 

There  is  a  growing  tendency  to  reduce  the  number  of 
figures  by  combining  those  that  are  quite  similar  and 
likely  to  be  confused.  This  is  especially  true  concern- 
ing Metonymy  and  Synecdoche.  Metonymy  means  "a 
change  of  name."  It  is  a  figure  by  means  of  which  a 
thing  is  referred  to  in  terms  of  something  else  closely 
related  to  it  or  associated  with  it.  It  is  not,  how- 
ever, a  comparison.  In  that  respect  it  differs  from 
a  metaphor.  In  Synecdoche  a  part  is  named  for  the 
whole,  the  whole  for  a  part,  etc.  We  consider  both 
metonymy  and  synecdoche  as  one  under  the  name  of 
metonymy. 

The  many  kinds  of  associations  and  relations  between 
objects  give  rise  to  many  varieties  of  metonymy,  so 
that  a  further  analysis  of  the  figure  becomes  necessary. 
Hence  we  have: 


THE  USE  OF  FIGURES  OF  SPEECH  461 

(a.)  The  sign  for  the  thing  signified. 

"The  shot  heard  around  the  world." — Concord  Hymn:  Emerson 

"The  sceptre  shall  not  depart  from  Judah  till  Shiloh  come." 

—Bible 

"If  Jonson's  learned  sock  be  on." — V Allegro:    Milton 

(b.)  Material  for  thing  made  from  it. 

"Silver  and  gold  have  I  none." — Bible 
"Born  in  the  purple,  born  to  joy  and  pleasance." — Longfellow 

(c.)  Container  for  thing  contained. 
"The  kettle  boils." 
"In  his  cups." 

(d.)  Cause  for  effect,  and  effect  for  cause. 

"  Sickness  or  sword  shall  cut  thee  off  from  the  strength." 

— Beowulf 
"Gray  hairs  should  be  respected." 

(e.)  Author  for  works;  maker  for  his  product. 
I  have  read  Shakespeare  and  Dickens. 
He  has  some  fine  Wedgewood. 

(f.)  Place  of  production  for  thing  produced. 
I  like  Brussels. 

(g.)  Abstract  for  concrete  and  reverse. 

The  pride  of  the  town  was  there. 
Garrick  again  appeared  upon  our  stage. 


462  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

(h.)  The  definite  for  the  indefinite. 

"Ten  thousand  fleets  weep  over  thee  in  vain." 

— Childe  Harold:  Byron 

"Ten  thousand  saw  I  at  a  glance." — Daffodils:  Wordsworth 

(i.)  A  part  for  the  whole.  (This  is  sometimes  consid- 
ered separately,  as  a  distinct  figure,  and  called 
"  synecdoche.") 

"Uneasy  lies  the  head  that  wears  a  crown." 

— Henry  IV:  Shakespeare 

Metonymy  is  a  common  and  useful  figure,  as  can  be 
seen  from  the  above  analysis,  in  that  it  directs  attention 
to  some  one  important  detail.  It  is  picturesque.  Some- 
times it  may  be  used  to  soften  what  would  otherwise  be 
too  harsh,  and  it  is  a  figure  that  is  economical,  for  it 
makes  one  word  serve  where  several  would  otherwise 
be  required.  The  varieties  given  above  might  be  easily 
increased,  but  enough  have  been  mentioned  to  serve 
practical  purposes  and  leave  some  for  the  inventive 
student  to  work  out  for  himself. 

There  are  also  several  figures  of  arrangement,  or  sen- 
tence structure,  concerning  which  but  little  need  be 
said. 

Antithesis.  Antithesis  is  a  figure  in  which  forceful 
contrasts  are  brought  out  by  balanced  sentence  struc- 
ture. It  is  useful  where  pointedness,  brevity,  and  vigor 
are  desired. 

"Man  proposes,  God  disposes." — Proverb 
"Penny  wise,  pound  foolish." — Proverb 
"When  I  am  weak,  then  am  I  strong." — Bible 


THE  USE  OF  FIGURES  OF  SPEECH  463 

Climax.  Climax  is  a  figure,  usually  contained  in  a 
periodic  sentence,  in  which  each  word,  phrase,  or  clause 
is  more  forceful  than  the  one  immediately  preceding  it. 
It  illustrates  the  principle  of  development  to  full 
maturity.    It  is  very  effective  if  not  overused. 

"Duncan  is  in  his  grave; 
After  life's  fitful  fever  he  sleeps  well; 
Treason  has  done  his  worst:  nor  steel,  nor  poison, 
Malice  domestic,  foreign  levy,  nothing 
Can  touch  him  further." — Macbeth:  Shakespeare 

Anticlimax.  Anticlimax,  the  opposite  of  climax,  is 
useful  in  humorous  writing  because  of  the  surprise.  It 
is  considered  an  error  in  discourse  unless  purposely  in- 
tended to  produce  a  ridiculous  effect.  A  Frenchman, 
on  first  seeing  Niagara  Falls,  exclaimed,  "  Grand,  mag- 
nifique,  very  fair!" 

"And  screams  of  horror  rend  th'  affrighted  skies. 
Not  louder  shrieks  to  pitying  Heaven  are  cast, 
When  husbands  or  when  lap-dogs  breathe  their  last." 

~-Rape  of  the  Lock:  Pope 

Repetition.  Repetition  of  the  same  word,  where  in- 
tended for  emphasis  or  other  rhetorical  effect,  is  a 
figure  of  speech.    Otherwise  is  an  error. 

"Water,  water  everywhere, 
Nor  any  drop  to  drink." 

— Ancient  Mariner:  Coleridge 

Parallelism.  Parallelism  is  the  repetition  of  the  same 
idea  in  similar  but  slightly  different  language.  It  was 
a  common  device  in  Hebrew  poetry. 

"Thy  kingdom  is  an  everlasting  kingdom,  And  thy  dominion 
endureth  throughout  all  generations." — Psalm  cxlv. 


464  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

Interrogation.  Interrogation,  or  the  rhetorical  ques- 
tion, is  not  a  real  question.  It  does  not  ask  for  informa- 
tion. It  emphasizes  the  idea  expressed.  It  is  generally 
the  result  of  strong  emotion  breaking  out  in  interroga- 
tory form,  and  not  waiting  for  an  answer.  It  is  very 
effective  in  poetry  and  in  debate. 

"Who  by  searching  can  find  out  God?" — Job 

"Now  search  the  same  records  for  the  produce  of  revenue  by 
imposition.     Where  is  it?" — Burke 

Exclamation.  Exclamation  expresses  sudden  and 
strong  emotion,  surprise,  or  irony. 

"My  heart  leaps  up  when  I  behold 
A  rainbow  in  the  sky!" 

— Poems  of  Childhood:   Wordsworth 

"Prophet,"  said  I,  "thing  of  evil!   prophet  still,  if  bird  or  devil!" 

— The  Raven:  Poe 

"Was  this  the  cottage  and  the  safe  abode 
Thou  told'st  me  of!" — Comus:  MiLton 

Alliteration.  Alliteration  was  the  chief  characteris- 
tic of  Old  English  poetry  before  end  rhyme  was  intro- 
duced by  the  Normans.  While  not  now  so  common,  it 
is  still  used  both  in  poetry  and  prose.  It  may  be  classed 
as  a  device  for  securing  emphasis.  Some  rhetoricians 
call  it  a  figure  of  speech.  Alliteration  consists  of  having 
a  series  of  words  begin  with  the  same  sounds  or  com- 
bination of  sounds. 

"Layamon  fared  far   among   the   folk." — Layamon's   Brut 

"Alone,  alone,  all,  all  alone, 
Alone  on  a  wide,  wide  sea." 

— Ancient  Mariner:  Coleridge 


THE  USE  OF  FIGURES  OF  SPEECH  465 

"Elaine  the  fair,   Elaine  the  lovable, 
Elaine  the  lily  maid  of  Astolat." 

— Lancelot  and  Elaine:  Tennyson 

Hyperbole.     Hyperbole  is  a  legitimate  exaggeration 
for  the  sake  of  emphasis;  not  to  mislead. 

"Why,  man,  if  the  river  were  dry,  I  am  able  to  fill  it  with  tears,* 
if  the  wind  were  down,  I  could  drive  the  boat  with  my  sighs." 

— Shakespeake 

•'Will  all  great  Neptune's  ocean  wash  this  blood 
Clean  from  my  hand?     No,  this  my  hand  will  rather 
The  multitudinous  seas  incarnadine, 
Making  the  green  one  red." 

— Macbeth:    Shakespeare 

Suggestions  for  review  and  practice  in  the  use  of 
figures  of  speech. 

In  one's  reading  it  is  well  to  be  on  the  lookout  for  figures  of 
speech  as  far  as  it  can  be  done  without  interfering  with  other  more 
important  things.  It  should  not  be  carried  so  far  as  to  hinder  one 
from  getting  the  meaning  of  what  he  reads.  Such  practice  should 
be  looked  upon  merely  as  a  study  of  models;  too  slavish  imitation 
of  other's  use  of  figures  always  results  in  mechanical  writing,  always 
to  be  avoided.  When,  however,  one  cultivates  his  imagination 
and  learns  to  observe  comparisons  which  are  readily  suggested 
by  the  raw  material  he  has  to  work  upon,  figures  will  suggest 
themselves  and  be  natural.  At  first,  to  be  sure,  they  may  not  seem 
natural  and  they  may  be  few  in  number,  but  practice  will  soon 
improve  matters. 

For  instance,  if  you  wish  to  describe  an  automobile  coming 
toward  you  at  a  rapid  rate,  at  night,  what  more  natural  way 
could  there  be  of  making  your  impressions  vivid  than  comparing 
it  to  some  monster,  like  a  dragon,  whose  fiery  eyes  glare  at  you 
through  the  darkness.  But,  if  a  simile  does  not  suit  you,  all 
you  have  to  do  is  to  drop  the  formal  comparison  and  use  an  implied 
comparison,  or  metaphor.  Then  you  might  say:  "Speed  as  you 
will,  fiery  monster,  you  will  never  catch  me,  for  I  can  dodge." 


466  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION! 

(What  figures  are  illustrated  in  the  above  sentence  besides  the 
metaphor?) 

Describe  an  automobile  passing  at  a  distance  at  night,  using  a 
different  metaphor  from  the  one  above. 

Describe  a  submarine  boat,  an  aeroplane,  an  exploding  sky- 
rocket, and  a  sunset,  using  such  figures  of  speech  as  most  naturally 
suggest  themselves  to  you.  Tell  what  figures  you  choose  and  the 
mental  process  by  which  you  came  to  select  them. 

Do  not  be  surprised  if  at  first  your  results  are  somewhat  fantastic. 
Overdoing  the  work  is  easily  remedied.    Select  and  use  your  best. 


CHAPTER  XII 
COMPOSITION   IN  VERSE 

Even  in  a  book  on  prose  composition,  and  rhetoric, 
it  is  necessary  to  study  poetry.  No  form  of  literature 
so  well  repays  study,  because  it  is  the  impassioned  ex- 
pression of  the  deepest  and  the  most  sublime  emotions 
man  has  ever  had.  Poetry  is  in  a  class  by  itself  and 
should  be  studied  for  its  own  sake;  but  there  are  cer- 
tain poetic  qualities  which  prose  shares  with  her  nobler 
sister,  and  which  make  it  worth  while  to  study  poetry 
for  the  enrichment  of  our  prose.  While  it  is  unwise  for 
the  beginner  to  attempt  to  write  what  is  called  prose- 
poetry,  he  should  know  what  it  is  and  why  it  possesses 
a  charm  which  is  excelled  by  pure  poetry  alone. 

Before  attempting  a  definition  of  poetry  let  us  notice 
some  of  its  characteristics.  It  is  only  ignorance  of  these 
distinguishing  characteristics  that  leads  some  to  ask 
why  people  ever  write  poetry  when  prose  would  do 
just  as  well  or  better.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  some  sub- 
jects cannot  be  at  all  adequately  treated  in  prose,  and 
many  subjects  which  can  be  treated  effectively  in  prose 
may  be  also  far  more  adequately  dealt  with  in  verse. 

The  most  obvious  mark  of  poetry  is  that  it  is  emo- 
tional; it  expresses  emotions  and  appeals,  primarily, 
to  the  emotions.  This  fact  alone  reveals  how  different 
it  is  from  prose  which  appeals  primarily  to  the  intel- 

467 


468  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

lect,  and  in  terms  which  the  intellect  alone  can  com- 
prehend. While  we  are  intelligent  beings  and  delight 
in  being  appealed  to  as  such,  we  are  also  emotional, 
and  our  emotional  susceptibilities  crave  their  own 
proper  delights  and  suffer  unless  the  craving  is  satisfied. 
We  feel  before  we  think,  and  we  feel  more  than  we 
think  and,  moreover,  our  deepest  thoughts  are  those 
which  accord  with  our  best  emotions.  So  the  emo- 
tional element  in  poetry  makes  a  strong  claim  upon  us, 
a  claim  we  cannot  ignore. 

The  second  characteristic  of  poetry  is  that  it  appeals 
to  the  imagination,  which  is  the  picturing  power  where- 
by we  see  with  our  minds  more  than  our  eyes  can  see; 
whereby  we  hear  with  our  minds  more  than  we  can 
with  our  ears.  Poetry  does  not  appeal  to  the  unimagi- 
native; it  cannot;  it  seems  foolish  to  them.  But  all 
children  are  more  or  less  imaginative,  and  most  mature 
people  retain,  though  it  may  be  dormant,  enough  poetic 
feeling  and  imagination  to  be  developed  into  real  poetic 
susceptibilities,  the  power  to  appreciate  poetry.  Un- 
poetic  people  are  like  Wordsworth's  Peter  Bell  in  the 
poem  by  that  name,  to  whom  "  A  primrose  by  the  river's 
brim,  a  yellow  primrose  was  to  him,  and  it  was  nothing 
more";  while  Wordsworth  himself  is  as  good  an  ex- 
ample of  a  poet  as  can  be  named,  for  he  said : 

"To  me  the  meanest  flower  that  blows,  can  give 
Thoughts  that  do  often  lie  too  deep  for  tears." 

— Ode  on  Immortality 

A  recent  writer  on  poetry  has  called  it  "the  imagina- 
tive realization  of  things,"  and  those  words  are  most 


COMPOSITION  IN  VERSE  469 

expressive.  The  man  of  poetic  temperament  lives  more 
intensely,  more  really,  because  he  lives  in  a  larger  world 
in  which  he  sees  and  feels  much;  in  which  everything 
talks  to  him  in  a  language  he  can  understand.  So 
Shelley  speaks  to  the  skylark  and  makes  the  cloud  tell 
its  own  story. 

It  is  through  the  use  of  the  imagination  that  poetry 
becomes  so  effective  to  all  who  are  under  the  impulse 
of  its  power.  Poetry  abounds  in  pictures;  in  fact  it 
largely  consists  in  a  picturesque  naming  of  things,  so 
that  ever  after  the  specific  name  given  by  the  poet 
brings  back  to  one  who  knows  the  language  of  poetry 
the  picture  that  accompanied  the  original  naming  of 
it  by  the  poet.  There  is  a  magic  in  the  right  word. 
Who,  for  instance,  that  has  ever  realized  the  full  mean- 
ing of  Poe's  words,  "The  glory  that  was  Greece,  and 
the  grandeur  that  was  Rome,"  can  ever  hear  those 
words  without  again  coming,  at  least  partially,  under 
the  spell  which  first  moved  him?  Tennyson  speaks  of 
the  "flower  in  a  crannied  wall,"  and  ever  afterward 
the  word  crannied  reminds  the  reader  of  the  exquisite 
naming  of  the  poet  in  the  first  instance. 

While  we  are  studying  prose  composition,  strange  as 
it  may  seem  it  is  one  of  the  best  times  to  consider  some 
of  the  claims  of  poetry,  for  one  can  best  avoid  the  error 
of  being  prosy  by  drinking  often  from  the  living  springs 
of  poetry.  The  best  way  to  cure  some  too  matter-of- 
fact  boys  of  their  persistent  aversion  for  poetry — which 
often  leads  them  to  ask  why  poets  did  not  say  what 
they  had  to  say  in  prose — is  tactfully  and  gradually  to 


470  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

introduce  them  to  poetry  by  reading  good  poetry  to 
them  until  they  feel  inclined  to  read  it  for  themselves. 
Nothing  can  so  enrich  one's  vocabulary  as  the  reading 
of  good  poetry;  nothing  can  so  quicken  the  imagination 
and  develop  the  power  to  write  briefly,  picturesquely, 
and  suggestively,  as  the  study  of  poetry.  It  also  tends 
to  give  that  added  charm  which  we  call  style,  which  is 
another  name  for  that  essential  quality  of  rhetoric 
known  as  beauty  or  elegance.  It  is  a  good  practice 
for  all  pupils  to  try  their  hand  at  writing  poetry,  even 
though  their  first  efforts  are  far  from  satisfactory  and 
though  they  destroy  what  they  write.  The  most 
charming  English  essayist  of  to-day  tells  us  that  before 
he  began  to  publish  his  prose  works  he  wrote  many 
hundreds  of  lines  of  poetry,  just  for  practice,  and  then 
threw  them  away. 

The  only  way  to  enjoy  poetry  is  to  read  it  aloud; 
such  reading  soon  expels  the  delusion  that  it  is  harder 
to  read  than  prose.  Nevertheless,  the  only  way  fully 
to  understand  poetry  is  to  learn  at  least  some  of  its 
fundamental  principles  and  to  master  the  simpler  prob- 
lems of  its  technique. 

Beginners  often  labor  under  the  delusion  that  the 
most  essential  thing  about  poetry  is  its  rhyme,  and  this 
is  not  strange  when  we  recall  that  much  of  the  so-called 
poetry  upon  which  children  are  brought  up — the  nursery 
rhymes — possess  no  other  qualification.  The  fact  is 
that  rhythm  and  not  rhyme  is  the  most  fundamental 
quality  of  poetry,  rhyme  being  only  one  of  the  decora- 
tive features.    This  error  must,  first  of  all,  be  eradicated 


COMPOSITION  IN  VERSE  471 

by  showing  the  real  values  and  the  relative  values  of 
both  rhythm  and  rhyme.  In  short,  we  must  analyze 
poetry  enough  to  see  how  a  poem  is  made. 

The  first  thing  to  notice  about  poetry  is  that  it  uses 
a  meter,  or  measure,  to  secure  rhythm.  The  language 
of  poetry  is  measured  language,  differing  from  that  of 
prose,  which  is  unmeasured.  The  line,  or  verse,  is  the 
commonest  unit  of  poetry. 

A  verse  is  a  definite  number  of  similarly  stressed 
syllables  grouped  into  poetic  feet.  It  should  never  be 
used  synonymously  with  stanza. 

A  poetic  foot  is  a  group  of  accented  and  unaccented 
syllables.  In  English  poetry  syllables  are  accented  on 
account  of  their  force,  and  in  this  respect  our  poetry 
differs  from  that  of  the  Latin  and  Greek  languages,  in 
which  the  length  of  the  syllables  was  alone  taken  into 
account,  long  vowels  being  accented  and  short  ones 
being  unaccented.  The  English  method  is  less 
mechanical. 

Poetic  feet  are  named  according  to  the  number  and 
arrangement  of  the  accented  and  unaccented  syllables. 

The  iambic  foot  consists  of  two  syllables,  of  which  the 
*  second  is  accented.  The  iambus  is  the  most  natural, 
and  hence  the  most  commonly  used  foot  in  English 
poetry.  It  is  employed  in  most  blank  verse  and  in 
many  other  kinds  of  poetry.  It  gives  a  stately  and 
dignified  rhythmic  motion  to  the  verse. 

While  several  methods  are  employed  to  designate 
poetic  feet,  the  classic  method  of  marking  the  syllables, 
the  method  of  using  musical  symbols,  and  the  method 


472  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

of  marking  the  accented  syllable  with  the  acute  accent 
sign,  we  shall  hereafter  employ  the  latter,  for  it  has 
the  advantage  of  simplicity.  The  following  line  is  made 
up  of  iambic  feet: 

"The  cur/few  tolls/the  knell/of  part/ing  day." 

The  trochaic  foot  is  the  reverse  of  the  iambic,  having 
the  stressed  syllable  first.  It  gives  a  livelier  motion  to 
the  verse.  This  is  the  foot  employed  in  Longfellow's 
Hiawatha : 

"Should  you/ask  me/ whence  these/st6ries?  " 

The  dactyl  consists  of  one  accented  syllable  followed 
by  two  unaccented  ones,  or  whose  accent  is  but  very 
slight.  It  imparts  an  easy,  flowing  rhythm,  to  the  verse. 
It  is  used  by  Longfellow  in  the  hexameter  of  Evangeline, 
but  is  not  common  in  English  poetry  except  in  shorter 
lines,  to  vary  the  monotony  of  too  many  trochees. 

This  is  the/forest  pri/meval;  the/murmuring/pines  and 
the/hemlocks." 

The  anapaest  consists  of  three  syllables,  the  last  of 
which  is  accented.    The  anapaest  is  frequently  used  in 
connection  with  iambic  feet.    The  following  line  from 
Woodworth  is  mostly  anapaestic: 
"How  d^ar/to  my  heart/are  the  se£nes/of  my  child/hood." 

This  from  Tennyson  is  wholly  so: 

"As  he  stands/on  the  heights/of  his  life/ with  a  glimpse/of 
a  height/ that  is  higher." 

These  four  feet  are  the  ones  most  commonly  used  in 
English  poetry.    The  others  are: 


COMPOSITION  IN  VERSE  473 

The  spondee,  consisting  of  two  accented  syllables. 

The  phyrric,  consisting  of  two  unaccented  syllables. 

The  amphibrach,  consisting  of  one  stressed  syllable 
preceded  and  followed  by  an  unstressed  syllable. 

A  choriambus,  consisting  of  an  accented  syllable  fol- 
lowed by  two  unaccented  ones  and  ending  with  another 
accented  one. 

A  pceon,  consisting  of  an  accented  syllable  followed 
by  three  unaccented  ones. 

The  line,  or  verse,  is  named  from  the  prevailing  foot 
used  in  it,  and  from  the  number  used;  thus  a  line  con- 
sisting of  one  iambic  foot  is  called  an  iambic  monometer; 
one  of  two  iambic  feet,  an  iambic  dimeter;  one  of  three, 
an  iambic  trimeter;  one  of  four,  an  iambic  tetrameter; 
one  of  five,  an  iambic  pentameter  (the  commonest  in 
English  poetry) ;  one  of  six,  a  hexameter. 

Other  lines  are  similarly  named:  e.g.,  the  trochaic 
tetrameter  of  Hiawatha  and  the  dactyllic  hexameter  of 
Evangeline. 

Variations  in  Rhythm.  While  seeking,  in  a  scientific 
manner,  to  reduce  the  laws  of  poetry  to  a  system,  it 
must  be  remembered  that  poetry  is,  after  all,  an  art 
subject  to  elastic  treatment.  A  strict  following  of  the 
rules  would  reduce  poetry  to  a  mechanism  when  its 
charm  would  be  lost.  Great  poets  are  big  enough  to 
break  the  rules  when  occasion  demands.  This  is  espe- 
cially necessary  and  desirable  when  uniformity  of 
rhythm  would  not  suit  the  thought,  or  the  emotion, 
and  a  variation  becomes  the  only  way  of  escape. 

Substituted  Feet.    When  a  sudden  change  of  thought 


474  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

or  emotion  necessitates  a  change  in  rhythm,  the  change 
is  generally  to  another  foot  of  a  similarly  placed  accent : 
thus  for  an  iambic  foot  the  natural  substitution  is  an 
anapaest ;  for  a  trochaic,  a  dactyl.  In  Lowell's  Vision  of 
Sir  Launfal,  where  the  regular  foot  is  the  iambic,  the 
poet  substitutes  two  anapaests  in  the  following  line. 
The  advantage  is  readily  seen. 


'And  what/is  so  rare/as  a  day/in  June 


!" 


In  reading  such  lines  the  anapaests  are  given  the  same 
time  that  is  given  to  the  iambics. 

When  there  is  a  very  marked  change  in  thought  or 
emotion,  a  trochaic  foot  may  be  substituted  for  an  iam- 
bic, or  vice  versa;  and  a  dactyl  for  an  anapaest  and 
vice  versa. 

Catalectic,  Acatalectic,  and  Hypercatalectic  Lines. 
The  commonest  variations  in  rhythm  are  the  omission 
or  the  addition  of  one  or  two  syllables  at  the  end  of 
the  lines.  A  catalectic  line  is  one  where  there  is  an  omis- 
sion; an  acatalectic  line  (meaning  not  catalectic)  is  a 
normal  line  without  additions  or  omissions;  a  hyper- 
catalectic line  is  one  with  additional  feet.  It  should  be 
noted  that  the  syllables  omitted  or  added  are  always 
unstressed  syllables.  This  is  the  rule:  trochaic  and 
dactylic  lines  may  omit  unstressed  syllables  from  the 
end  of  the  line,  while  iambic  and  anapaestic  lines  may 
add  one  or  two  extra  syllables  at  the  end  of  the  line. 
Unstressed  syllables  may  also  be  omitted  from  other 
parts  of  the  line,  though  this  is  less  common.  When 
omitted  from  the  beginning  of  the  line  the  change  is 


COMPOSITION  IN  VERSE  475 

scarcely  perceptible,  but  when  an  unstressed  syllable  is 
omitted  from  a  foot  in  the  midst  of  the  line  it  is  very 
noticeable  and  has  the  effect  of  strong  emphasis  upon 
the  stressed  syllables.    Note  Tennyson's 

"Break,  break,  break." 

Slurring  and  elision  are  technical  words  indicating 
two  ways  of  suppressing  syllables  without  actually 
omitting  them.  When  a  vowel  within  a  word  is  slighted 
by  being  combined  with  the  following  vowel,  it  is  said 
to  be  slurred;  e.g., 

"Girt  with  omnipotence,  with  radiance  crowned." 

In  the  above  line  the  word  radiance,  usually  trisylla- 
bic, is  made  dissyllabic  by  slurring.  Otherwise  it  would 
make  an  anapaest,  which  is  not  wanted. 

Whenever  a  vowel  is  suppressed  at  the  end  of  a  word 
it  is  called  elision;  e.g., 

"The  applause  of  listening  senates  to  command." 

In  the  foregoing  line  the  e  of  the  first  word  is  elided 
with  the  following  a,  and  the  th  combined  with  the  a  to 
make  one  syllable. 

It  should  be  noted  that  such  variations  as  we  have 
mentioned  are  never  made  by  great  poets  except  where 
necessary,  but  where  they  are  necessary  the  changes 
are  most  effective  if  skillfully  handled. 

Rhythm  is  the  chief  essential  of  poetry  viewed  from 
the  technical  side.  Lines  having  rhythm,  however,  are 
not  necessarily  poetry.  They  may  lack  other  essentials. 
Such  lines  are  sometimes  called  verse. 


476  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

Rhythm  in  a  line  is  discovered  and  classified  by  means 
of  scansion,  which  may  be  defined  as  a  technical  read- 
ing of  poetry  in  such  a  way  as  to  indicate  its  rhythm 
and  meter.  Oral  scansion  is  accomplished  by  giving 
proper  voice  stress  to  the  accented  syllables  while 
barely  sounding  the  unstressed  syllables.  Written  scan- 
sion is  indicated  by  marking  the  syllables,  as  in  the 
illustrations  given  under  the  heading  " poetic  feet." 

Rests  or  Caesural  Pauses.  In  verse,  as  in  music, 
there  are  rests,  called  ccesura,  used  to  give  variety,  and 
to  prevent  the  rhythm  from  becoming  mechanical  and 
monotonous.  The  caesural  pause  may  occur  almost  any- 
where in  the  verse  and  between  feet  or  in  the  middle  of 
a  foot.  Its  location  is  usually  determined  by  the  sense, 
as  in  the  following  line: 

"This  is  the  forest  primeval.  The  murmuring  pines  and  the 
hemlocks." 

where  it  occurs  at  the  natural  pause,  the  end  of  the  sen- 
tence. Sometimes  the  pause  may  take  the  place  of 
syllables,  as  in  Tennyson's  line, 

"Break,  break,  break," 

where  the  rest  is  absolutely  essential. 

There  are  also  certain  kinds  of  verse  decoration, 
which,  while  not  essential,  often  add  much  to  the  charm 
of  poetry.  Beginners,  as  has  been  said,  are  often  mis- 
led into  thinking  rhyme,  for  instance,  the  chief  essential 
and  most  distinguishing  characteristic  of  poetry.  This 
is  wholly  wrong.    It  is  merely  a  decorative  feature  and 


COMPOSITION  IN  VERSE  477 

is  not  used  at  all  in  one  of  the  principal  forms,  blank 

verse. 

Alliteration  is  a  repetition  of  sounds  at  the  beginning 

of  syllables.    It  was  common  in  Anglo-Saxon  poetry, 

and  one  of  its  chief  characteristics,  e.g.: 

"A  fair  field  full  of  folk." 

"In  a  somer  seson  when  soft  was  the  sonne." 

— Piers  Plowman:    Langlande 

Rhyme  is  a  similarity  of  sounds  of  syllables  similarly 
placed  in  a  poem. 

Ordinarily  the  rhyming  words  are  only  at  the  ends  of 
the  lines,  but  occasionally  they  are  in  the  same  lines; 
as,  for  example,  in  "The  splendor  falls  on  castle  walls"; 
"Once  upon  a  midnight  dreary,  while  I  pondered,  weak 
and  weary."    The  latter  is  called  mid-line  rhyme. 

The  end-line  rhyme  consists  in  having  the  last  words, 
or  syllables,  of  lines  that  are  adjacent  or  near  each  other, 
rhyme.  When  two  adjacent  lines  thus  rhyme  we  have 
the  rhymed  couplet,  so  common  in  Pope  and  the  clas- 
sical school. 

"Honor  and  shame  from  no  condition  rise, 
Act  well  thy  part,  there  all  the  honor  lies" 

Other  arrangements  of  rhyming  lines  give  rise  to  the 
various  stanzaic  structures.  The  simplest  stanza  is  that 
most  commonly  used  in  the  ballad  where  the  first  line 
rhymes  with  the  third  and  the  second  with  the  fourth; 

"Around  in  sympathetic  mirth 
Its  tricks  the  kittle  tries; 
The  cricket  chirrups  in  the  hearth; 
The  crackling  faggot  flies." 

— The  Hermit,  stanza  14:  Goldsmith 


478  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

In  the  old  ballads,  however,  only  the  second  and 
fourth  lines  were  made  to  rhyme. 

"High  upon  Highlands, 
and  low  upon  Tay, 
Bonnie  George  Campbell 
rade  out  on  a  day." 

Coleridge  followed  the  same  old  ballad  style  in  his 
Ancient  Mariner. 

"He  went  like  one  that  hath  been  stunned, 
And  is  of  sense  forlorn: 
A  sadder  and  a  wiser  man, 
He  rose  the  morrow  morn." 

A  very  different  and  most  pleasing  effect  is  secured 
by  Tennyson  in  his  In  Memoriam,  by  using  a  four-line 
stanza  and  making  the  first  line  rhyme  with  the  fourth 
and  the  second  with  the  third. 

"Ring  out,  wild  bells,  to  the  wide  sky, 
The  flying  cloud,  the  frosty  light : 
The  year  is  dying  in  the  night; 
Ring  out,  wild  bells,  and  let  him  die." 

While,  as  will  be  seen  when  studying  the  stanza,  there 
are  several  well-established  rhyme  schemes  which  give 
individuality  to  the  stanzas,  any  poet  may,  like  Tenny- 
son, adopt  an  original  rhyme  scheme  of  his  own  and, 
perhaps,  invent  a  new  stanza.  In  fact,  it  is  only  in  this 
way  that  the  later  poets  may  show  their  originality, 
except  in  combining  long  and  short  lines  to  suit  their 
purpose. 

While  rhyme  is  not  essential  to  poetry,  it  is  most 
valuable,  when  skillfully  used,  in  adding  to  the  attrac- 


COMPOSITION  IN  VERSE  479 

tiveness  and  the  musical  effect  of  poetry,  especially 
lyric  poetry.  It  increases  the  emotional  effect;  the  re- 
currence of  similar  sounds  sometimes  has  an  effect 
which  could  be  produced  in  no  other  way.  For  instance, 
Tennyson,  in  In  Memoriam,  where  the  fourth  line 
echoes  the  sound  of  the  first  line,  it  produces  an  emo- 
tional stress  which,  when  carried  on  through  hundreds 
of  stanzas,  gives  that  poem  a  power  which  is  remarkable. 
The  kinds  of  rhyme  are  as  follows:  masculine,  or 
single,  where  the  syllables  that  rhyme  are  the  last  in 
each  line. 

"Blessings  on  thee,  little  man, 
Barefoot  boy,  with  cheek  of  ton." 

Feminine,  or  double,  rhyme  is  where  the  last  two 
syllables  rhyme. 

"The  skies  they  were  ashen  and  sober; 
The  leaves  they  were  crisped  and  sere, 
The  leaves  they  were  withering  and  sere; 
It  was  night  in  the  lonesome  October 
Of  my  most  memorial  year." 

There  is  also  triple  rhyme,  in  the  use  of  which  Byron 
and  Browning  are  masters,  but  it  is  used  mostly  for 
humorous  effect.  Lowell,  also,  employs  it  in  his  Fable 
for  Critics.  Double,  or  feminine,  rhyme  is  sometimes 
used  in  the  same  humorous  way. 

"But — oh!    ye  lords  of  ladies  intellectual, 
Inform  us  truly,  have  they  not  hen-pecked-you  all?" 

— Don  Juan:    Byron 

"The  Soldier  in  breastplate  and  helmet      * 
Stood  frowningly — hail  fellow  well  met — " 

— Pacchiarotte:    Browning 


480  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

"Unqualified  merits,  I'll  grant,  if  you  choose,  he  has  'em; 
But  he  lacks  the  one  merit  of  kindling  enthusiasm." 

— Fable  for  Critics:  Lowell 

Concerning  quadruple  and  other  multiple  rhymes 
nothing  need  be  said;  they  are  literary  curiosities  found 
only  in  the  poetry  of  the  East. 

The  rules  for  rhyming  are: 

1.  The  rhyming  syllable  must  be  the  accented  one. 

2.  The  consonants  preceding  the  final  vowel  must  be 
different  in  the  rhyming  words. 

3.  If  consonant  sounds  follow  the  rhymed  vowel,  they 
should  be  identical. 

It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  perfect  rhymes  are 
not  considered  absolutely  essential  in  our  language. 
Vowel  sounds  that  are  not  the  same,  but  only  similar, 
are  allowed. 

Identical  Rhyme.  The  rhyming  of  the  same  word  or 
of  words  that  sound  the  same  though  different  in  mean- 
ing, is  not  allowable  in  modern  poetry.  Chaucer,  never- 
theless, used  it. 

The  extent  to  which  rhyme  is  employed,  as  well  as 
the  pleasurable  effect  it  produces,  shows  the  value  it 
has  in  our  poetry.  The  caution  necessary  is  to  avoid 
using  rhyme  too  much  for  its  own  sake,  or  where  a 
rhyming  word  does  not  make  sense.  When  mere  jingles 
and  doggeral  result,  rhyme  should  be  avoided. 

The  Stanza.  While  rhyme  is  important  as  a  means 
of  securing  tone  color,  its  most  important  function  lies 
in  the  fact  that  it  is  the  organizer  of  the  stanza.  Since 
the  introduction  into  England  of  both  rhyme  and  the 


COMPOSITION  IN  VERSE  481 

stanza,  under  Latin  and  French  influences,  they  have 
been  inseparable. 

As  the  foot  is  the  smallest  unit  of  verse  measure,  the 
stanza  is  the  longest.  (The  synonym  for  stanza,  strophe, 
meaning  a  turning,  is  significant.)  Except  in  the  ode, 
where  variety  is  allowed,  all  the  stanzas  in  any  poem 
must  be  identical  in  form. 

A  stanza  is  a  group  of  two  or  more  consecutive  verses 
bound  together  by  end  rhymes.  The  fundamental  mat- 
ters to  be  determined  are :  the  length  of  the  lines,  which 
need  not  be  the  same  throughout,  the  number  of  lines, 
and  the  rhyme  scheme. 

The  kinds  of  stanza  are  unlimited,  but  the  more 
important  established  forms  are: 

1.  The  couplet,  which  is  a  stanza  of  two  lines,  or 
verses,  which  usually,  though  not  always,  rhyme. 

"  Softly  sweet  in  Lydian  measures, 
Soon  he  soothed  his  soul  to  pleasures." — Dryden 

"Truth  crushed  to  earth  shall  rise  again; 
The  eternal  years  of  God  are  hers." — Bryant 

Strictly  speaking,  a  stanza  cannot  consist  of  less 
then  three  lines,  and  many  writers  do  not  treat  the 
couplet  as  a  stanza  at  all,  but  as  a  part  of  long  stanzas. 
So,  if  preferred,  the  couplet  may  be  defined  as  two 
rhymed  lines  of  the  same  metrical  structure. 

The  commonest  form  of  the  couplet  is  the  heroic,  or 
decasyllabic,  consisting  of  two  iambic  pentameter  lines. 
It  was  in  common,  almost  universal,  use  from  Ben 
Jonson  to  Samuel  Johnson.    The  tendency  to  misuse  it 


482  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

and  make  it  mechanical  and  monotonous  was  one  of 
the  causes  which  led  to  the  great  reaction  culminating 
in  the  romantic  revival  under  Wordsworth. 

2.  The  tercet,  or  triplet,  is  a  three-line  stanza.    This 

stanza  is  not  now  much  used  in  English  poetry,  except 

in  combinations.    All  three  lines  may  rhyme,  or  two  of 

them. 

"Like  the  swell  of  some  sweet  tune, 
Morning  rises  into  noon, 
May  glides  onward  into  June." 

— Maidenhood:  Longfellow 

"The  true  has  no  value  beyond  the  sham; 
As  well  the  counter  as  coin,  I  submit, 
When  your  table's  a  hat,  and  your  prize,  a  dram." 

— The  Statue  and  the  Bust:  Browning 

The  terza  rima,  so  characteristic  of  The  Divine  Com- 
edy, is  most  difficult  in  English  verse,  and  has  been  but 
little  tried.  Something  like  it  is  Shelley's  Ode  to  the 
West  Wind,  in  which  each  tercet  is  united  by  the  rhyme 
scheme  with  the  preceding  one. 

3.  The  quatrain,  or  four-line  stanza,  is  very  common, 
perhaps  the  most  common  of  all  stanzas.  The  regular 
quatrain  is  the  familiar  ballad  stanza  (verses  one  and 
three  being  iambic  tetrameters,  and  verses  two  and  four 
being  iambic  trimeters)  where  the  regular  rhyme  scheme 
is  that  verses  one  and  three  generally  rhyme  and  verses 
two  and  four  always  do.  The  omission  of  the  rhyme 
in  the  third  line  probably  indicates  that  the  ballad 
stanza  was  once  regarded  as  consisting  of  two  long  lines 
instead  of  four  short  ones. 


COMPOSITION  IN  VERSE  483 

"Ye  flowery  banks  o'  bonnie  Doon, 
How  can  ye  blume  sae  fair! 
How  can  ye  chant,  ye  little  birds, 
And  I  sae  fu'  o'  care!" 

— Ye  Flowery  Banks:  Burns 

The  above  is  also  called  common  meter. 

When  a  quatrain  consists  of  four  iambic  pentameters 
rhyming  alternately,  it  is  called  the  elegiac,  or  the 
heroic  stanza,  e.g.,  Gray's  Elegy. 

"The  boast  of  heraldry,  the  pomp  of  pow'r, 

And  all  that  beauty,  all  that  wealth  e'er  gave, 
Await  alike  th'  inevitable  hour: 

The  paths  of  glory  lead  but  to  the  grave." 

A  quatrain  of  four  iambic  tetrameters  is  called  long 
meter. 

A  quatrain  of  four  iambic  trimeters,  with  an  addi- 
tional foot  added  to  the  third  line,  makes  the  stanza 
known  as  short  meter. 

Common,  long,  and  short-meter  stanzas  are  much 
used  in  sacred  hymns. 

Tennyson's  original  use  of  the  quatrain,  four  iambic 
tetrameters,  in  which  the  first  rhymes  with  the  fourth 
and  the  second  with  the  third,  has  given  the  name 
Tennysonian  to  that  stanza.    (See  above.) 

4.  The  five-line  stanza  is  common  in  English  poetry 
and  has  been  used  by  Burns,  Wordsworth,  Shelley,  and 
many  others.  Much  originality,  however,  has  been 
shown  as  to  the  length  of  the  lines  and  the  rhyme 
schemes.     Study  and  compare  them. 


484  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

"Hail  to  thee,  blithe  spirit! 
Bird  thou  never  wert, 
That  from  heaven,  or  near  it, 

Pourest  thy  full  heart 
In  profuse  strains  of  unpremeditated  art." 

— To  a  Skylark:  Shelley 

5.  The  six-line  stanza  is  equally  common,  and  ap- 
pears with  many  variations.  It  is  seen  frequently  in 
sacred  poetry  and  is  much  used  by  Mrs.  Browning, 
Burns,  Byron,  Kipling,  and  others.  It  is  often  the 
union  of  three  couplets;  sometimes  of  two  tercets. 

"And  if  I  should  live  to  be 
The  last  leaf  upon  the  tree 

In  the  spring, 
Let  them  smile,  as  I  do  now, 
At  the  old  forsaken  bough 
Where  I  cling." 

— The  Last  Leaf:  0.  W.  Holmes 

"0  wad  some  Power  the  giftie  gie  us 
To  see  oursels  as  ithers  see  us! 
It  wad  frae  monie  a  blunder  free  us, 

An'  foolish  notion; 
What  airs  in  dress  an'  gait  wad  lea'e  us, 
An'  ev'n  devotion!" — To  a  Louse:  Buens 

6.  The  seven-line  stanza  is  also  known  as  the  Chau- 
cerian stanza,  because  used  by  Chaucer,  and  as  Rime 
Royal,  because  it  was  once  thought  King  James  used  it. 
It  is  more  likely,  however,  that  the  name  was  of  French 
origin.  This  stanza  was  Chaucer's  great  contribution 
to  the  form  of  English  verse,  for  he  wrote  some  fourteen 
thousand  lines  in  it.  The  verse  is  iambic  pentameter. 
The  first  four  lines  form  an  ordinary  quatrain,  the  fifth 
rhymes  with  the  last  of  the  quatrain,  while  the  last  two 
form  a  couplet. 


COMPOSITION  IN  VERSE  485 

7.  The  eight-line  stanza,  Ottava  Rima,  consists  of 
iambic  pentameter  verses,  of  which  the  first  six  rhyme 
alternately  and  the  last  two  form  a  couplet.  Byron 
used  this  stanza  in  Don  Juan.  The  structure  is  pleas- 
ing. This  stanza  is  also  common  in  sacred  poetry, 
where  different  lines  are  used,  such  as  fit  the  subject. 

8.  The  Spenserian  stanza  consists  of  nine  lines,  eight 
of  which  are  iambic  pentameters.  The  ninth  line  is 
iambic  hexameter,  called  also  Alexandrine.  This  stanza 
was  invented  by  Edmund  Spenser  and  first  used  by 
him  in  The  Faerie  Queene.  There  are  two  regular  qua- 
trains connected  by  the  last  line  of  the  first  and  the 
first  line  of  the  last  rhyming,  while  the  eighth  and  ninth 
lines  also  rhyme.  The  rhyme  scheme  is  ababbcbcc. 
Besides  in  the  Faerie  Queene  this  stanza  is  used  by 
Burns  in  The  Cotter's  Saturday  Night,  by  Byron  in  The 
Childe  Harold,  by  Keats  in  The  Eve  of  St.  Agnes,  and  by 
others.  Modern  poets  sometimes  take  liberties  with  it 
and  often  destroy  its  original  beauty  and  power. 

"A  Gentle  Knight  was  pricking  on  the  plaine 
Ycladd  in  mighty  arms  and  silver  shield, 
Wherein  old  dints  of  deepe  woulds  did  remaine, 
The  cruel  marks  of  many  a  bloody  fielde; 
Yet  arms  till  that  time  did  he  never  wield. 
His  angry  steed  did  chide  his  foaming  bitt, 
As  much  disdayning  to  the  curb  to  yield : 
Full  jolly  knight  he  seemd,  and  fair  did  sitt, 
As  one  for  knightly  giusts  and  fierce  encounters  fitt. ' ' 

— Faerie  Queene:.  Edmund  Spenser 

9.  The  Sonnet.  While  really  a  complete  poem  and 
not  a  stanza,  it  seems  well  to  speak  of  the  sonnet  here. 


486  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

It  is  a  poem  of  fourteen  iambic  verses.  The  Petrarchian, 
or  Italian,  sonnet,  is  the  regular  form  which  most  Eng- 
lish poets  have  followed.  Shakespeare  and  a  few  others 
have  modified  the  Italian  form  enough  to  give  rise  to 
what  is  known  as  the  English  sonnet.  The  greatest  of 
the  English  writers  of  sonnets  was  Wordsworth,  who 
followed,  in  the  main,  the  Italian  style.  Rossetti  and 
Mrs.  Browning  wrote  several  excellent  ones,  but  they 
took  great  liberties. 

The  regular  Italian  sonnet  consists  of  an  octave  and 
a  sestet;  the  octave  always  consists  of  two  quatrains, 
while  the  sestet  usually  consists  of  two  tercets.  The 
rhyme  scheme  is,  for  the  octave,  abbaabba,  and 
for  the  sestet,  usually,  cdecde  or  cdcdcd. 

The  chief  characteristic  of  the  Shakesperian  sonnet  is 
that  it  is  made  up  of  three  quatrains  and  a  couplet, 
rhyming  as  follows :  ab  ab  cdcdef  ef  g  g. 

An  Italian  sonnet: 

"Scorn  not  the  Sonnet;  Critic,  you  have  frowned, 

Mindless  of  its  just  honors;  with  this  key 

Shakespeare  unlocked  his  heart;  the  melody 
Of  this  small  lute  gave  ease  to  Petrarch's  wound; 
A  thousand  times  this  pipe  did  Tasso  sound; 

With  it  Cameons  soothed  an  exile's  grief; 

The  Sonnet  glittered  a  gay  myrtle  leaf 
Amid  the  cypress  with  which  Dante  crowned 

His  visionary  brow:  a  glow-worm  lamp, 
It  cheered  mild  Spenser,  called  from  Faeryland 

To  struggle  through  dark  ways;  and,  when  a  damp 
Fell  round  the  path  of  Milton,  in  his  hand 

The  Thing  became  a  trumpet;  whence  he  blew 

Soul-animating  strains — alas,  too  few!" 

— Scorn  Not  the  Sonnet:  Wordsworth 


COMPOSITION  IN  VERSE  487 

"When,  in  disgrace  with  fortune  and  men's  eyes, 

I  all  alone  be  weep  my  outcast  state. 
And  trouble  deaf  heaven  with  my  bootless  cries, 

And  look  upon  myself  and  curse  my  fate; 
Wishing  me  like  to  one  more  rich  in  hope, 

Featured  like  him,  like  him  with  friends  possest, 
Desiring  this  man's  art,  and  that  man's  scope, 

With  what  I  most  enjoy  contented  least; 
Yet  in  these  thoughts  myself  at  most  despising, 

Haply  I  think  on  thee — and  then  my  state, 
Like  to  the  lark  at  break  of  day  arising 

From  sullen  earth,  sings  hymns  at  heaven's  gate; 
For  thy  sweet  love  remember'd  such  wealth  brings 
That  I  scorn  to  change  my  state  with  kings." 

— Sonnet   29:     Shakespeare 

KINDS    OF  POETRY 

There  are  three  kinds  of  poetry:  Epic,  Lyric,  and 
Dramatic. 

Epic  Poetry.  Epic  poetry  is  always  narrative.  It  is 
elevated  in  thought,  centering  around  some  one  great 
hero,  often  of  superhuman  proportions,  and  hence  is 
often  called  heroic  poetry.  It  is  serious  in  thought 
and  is  always  expressed  in  suitable  language.  It  is  very 
difficult  to  produce,  and  but  few  poets  have  had  suffi- 
cient power  and  imagination  to  rise  to  epic  heights. 
Consequently  the  world's  great  epics  are  few :  Homer's 
Iliad  and  The  Odssey ;  Virgil's  Mneid;  Dante's  Divine 
Comedy;  Milton's  Paradise  Lost;  Beowulf,  Alfred 
Noyes'  Drake,  comprise  about  all  worthy  the  name. 

There  are,  however,  other  and  lesser  forms  of  narra- 
tive poetry  which  share  some  of  the  elements  of  the 
epic:  such  metrical  romances  as  Scott's  Marmion  and 
The  Lady  of  the  Lake;   Tennyson's  Idylls  of  the  King, 


488  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

sometimes  less  accurately  called  an  epic ;  and  Spenser's 
Faerie  Queene;  such  metrical  chronicles  as  Layamon's 
Brut;  such  metrical  tales  as  Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn, 
Tarn  o'  Shanter,  and  Enoch  Arden;  and  such  ballads  as 
the  old  ones  which  grew  up  from  folklore,  Robin  Hood 
and  Chevy  Chase,  together  with  made  ballads  like  Cole- 
ridge's Ancient  Mariner  and  Tennyson's  Maud.  Under 
this  classification  may  also  be  put  the  pastoral,  of  which 
Goldsmith's  Deserted  Village  and  Thompson's  Seasons 
are  examples,  together  with  the  idyll,  which  is  a  short 
pastoral,  but  usually  more  polished  in  form,  more  de- 
scriptive, and  more  highly  emotional.  Evangeline  and 
The  Idylls  of  the  King  are  illustrations  of  this  class. 

Lyric  Poetry.  Lyric  poetry  is  highly  emotional  and 
usually  subjective,  expressing  all  phases  of  passion  from 
the  most  ecstatic  joy  to  the  bitterest  sorrow,  all  that  is 
noble  and  all  that  is  base  in  human  feelings.  Originally 
this  kind  of  poetry  was  meant  to  be  sung  to  the  ac- 
companiment of  the  lyre,  but  the  term  is  now  applied 
to  all  brief  emotional  poetry  without  reference  to  sing- 
ing qualities.  Lyric  poetry  must  be  concise  and  highly 
imaginative.  Its  appeal  is  most  intense.  It  is  the  most 
poetic  of  all  poetry.  If  one  likes  lyric  poetry  he  has 
poetic  susceptibilities  and  will  probably  learn  to  like 
all  poetry.  Lyric  poetry  finds  one's  soul  if  anything 
does.  • 

The  sonnet,  meaning  "a  little  song,"  is  the  highest 
type  of  the  lyric  poem,  and  at  its  best  represents  the 
summit  of  poetic  attainment.  (See  the  sonnets  quoted 
above.) 


COMPOSITION  IN  VERSE  489 

The  song,  which  may  be  sacred  or  secular,  is  a  short 
lyric  in  an  easy  measure,  so  that  it  may  be  sung.  Sa- 
cred songs  are  emotional  expressions  of  deep  religious 
feeling,  such  as  Nearer,  my  God,  to  Thee  and  Lead,  Kindly 
Light.  Secular  songs  are  patriotic,  sentimental,  con- 
vivial, comic. 

The  ode  is  much  more  elaborate  and  varied  in  struc- 
ture than  the  song,  and  rises  to  great  heights  in  express- 
ing the  poet's  enthusiasm.  It  is  not  intended  to  be 
sung.  In  it  a  poet  exhausts  all  the  powers  of  language 
to  voice  his  best  emotions  and  thoughts,  and  leaves  us 
with  the  feeling  that  much  that  he  would  have  expressed 
has  " broken  through  language  and  escaped."  Odes  are 
always  exalted  in  thought. 

Some  of  the  best  in  our  language  are  Wordsworth's 
Ode  on  Immortality;  Keats' s  Ode  to  a  Grecian  Urn;  Shel- 
ley's To  a  Skylark  and  The  Cloud;  Lowell's  Commemora- 
tion Ode;  and  Henry  van  Dyke's  Ode  to  Music* 

"Then  sing,  ye  Birds,  sing,  sing  a  joyous  song! 

And  let  the  young  Lambs  bound 

As  to  the  tabor's  sound! 
We  in  thought  will  join  your  throng, 

Ye  that  pipe  and  ye  that  play, 

Ye  that  through  your  hearts  to-day 

Feel  the  gladness  of  the  May! 
What  though  the  radiance  which  was  once  so  bright 
Be  now  forever  taken  from  my  sight, 
Though  nothing  can  bring  back  the  hour 
Of  splendor  in  the  grass,  of  glory  in  the  flower; 
We  will  grieve  not,  rather  find 
Strength  in  what  remains  behind; 
In  the  primal  sympathy 
Which  having  been  must  ever  be; 
In  the  soothing  thoughts  that  spring 


490  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

Out  of  human  suffering 

In  the  faith  that  looks  through  death, 

In  the  years  that  bring  the  philosophic  mind." 

— (Last  Stanza)  Ode  to  Immortality:  Wordsworth 

The  elegy,  or  mournful  ode,  is  a  lyric  poem  expressing 
sorrow,  but  it  is  usually  also  accompanied  by  medita- 
tive reflection  by  means  of  which  a  way  of  escape  into 
realms  of  hope  of  coming  victory  is  offered.  Some 
elegies  are  veiled  in  pastoral  form  for  euphemistic  effect, 
such  as  Milton's  Lycidas;  Arnold's  Thyrsis;  Emerson's 
Threnody. 

Besides  these,  some  of  the  best  elegies  are  Shelley's 
Adonais  on  the  death  of  Keats,  Gray's  Elegy  Written  in 
a  Country  Churchyard,  and  Tennyson's  In  Memoriam, 
which  is  much  more  than  an  elegy. 

The  simple  lyric  may  serve  as  a  designation  of  those 
numerous  lyrics  which  are  not  comprised  under  the 
sub-titles — sonnets,  songs,  odes,  and  elegies.  By  sim- 
ple lyrics  we  mean  those  outbursts  of  emotion,  in  choice 
poetic  forms,  which  are  so  common,  such  as  Words- 
worth's Daffodils  and  his  My  Heart  Leaps  Up  When  I 
Behold,  Burns's  To  a  Mouse  and  To  a  Mountain  Daisy, 
Milton's  U Allegro,  etc. 

Dramatic  Poetry.  Dramatic  poetry  is  that  in  which 
action  and  emotion  are  represented  in  dialogue  and 
business,  instead  of  being  merely  related.  It  is  the 
most  comprehensive  form  of  poetry  and  in  it  the  great- 
est masters  have  produced  the  best  of  all  literary 
achievements,  the  Greek  tragedies,  and  the  plays  of 
Shakespeare. 


COMPOSITION  IN  VERSE  491 

Though  the  drama  deals  with  the  past,  it  represents 
that  past  in  the  present;  though  it  tells  a  story,  the 
narrative  is  subordinated  to  action,  which  reproduces 
the  story  so  that  it  may  be  seen;  though  a  story  is 
represented  in  action  by  an  author,  the  author  is  not 
manifest;  he  speaks  only  through  others,  the  charac- 
ters whom  he  creates  to  live  out  the  story.  Dialogue, 
only  incidental  in  the  epic,  is  here  absolutely  essential. 

"All  the  world's  a  stage, 
And  all  the  men  and  women 
Merely  players," 

said  Shakespeare,  who  also  made  a  character  say  that 
the  actors  "hold  the  mirror  up  to  nature." 

Briefly,  a  drama  is  that  literary  form  in  which  a  story 
is  told  by  essential  characters  who  so  speak  and  so  act 
in  a  series  of  changing  situations,  arranged  so  as  to  de- 
velop a  plot,  that  the  story  moves  logically  and  irre- 
sistibly to  a  final  representation  of  the  action  in  the 
denouement  which  reveals  the  consequences  of  all  that 
has  gone  before.  A  drama  must  be  characterized  by 
unity  of  action,  so  that  the  main  purpose  is  never  long 
lost  from  view.  All  minor  matters  must  be  so  subordi- 
nated to  the  controlling  purpose  as  to  aid  and  not  hinder 
the  final  working  out  of  that  supreme  purpose. 

Most  dramas  are  intended  for  action  upon  a  stage, 
before  an  audience  which  sees  as  well  as  hears.  The 
word  theater  suggests  an  audience  of  spectators  more 
than  listeners.  Action  is  seen  while  the  words  are  heard. 
The  power  of  a  drama  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  makes  a 


492  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

double  appeal.  Every  true  play  must  be  capable  of 
being  acted  before  an  audience. 

Since  the  drama  is  ''imitated  human  action/'  it  em- 
ploys scenery  and  costumes  as  well  as  many  other  con- 
trivances to  help  create  the  illusion  of  real  human  life 
being  lived  before  the  audience. 

The  chief  forms  of  the  drama  are: 

1.  Tragedy,  the  highest  form  of  dramatic  art.  Trag- 
edy deals  with  weighty  themes,  often  ethical,  is  always 
serious,  and  represents  a  passionate  struggle  of  a  mortal 
against  fate  expressed  in  human  or  in  divine  laws.  The 
conflict  may  be  with  external  or  with  internal  forces; 
it  may  take  the  form  of  combating  one's  environment 
or  of  overcoming  his  baser  nature.  Tragedy  may  be 
defined  as  a  testing  of  the  human  soul,  a  testing  which 
may  or  may  not  be  accompanied  by  the  death  of  the 
body  or  of  the  soul  or  of  both.  Hence  it  is  wrong  to 
assume  that  a  tragedy  is  necessarily  bloody.  The  death 
of  the  hero  is  not  essential.  It  often  does  result  because 
the  struggle  is  too  great  for  human  power  to  endure; 
but  it  should  be  remembered  that  if  the  soul  stands  the 
test  there  is  a  higher  victory.  All  martyrs  to  great 
causes  win  a  high  spiritual  victory  by  their  sacrifice, 
and  hence  are  successful  in  the  best  sense,  even  though 
they  die  physically.  This  important  truth  about  trag- 
edy must  be  heeded  if  one  would  fully  appreciate  this 
great  form  of  art  and  not  turn  from  it  because  it  is 
serious  and  sad.  He  who  understands  the  great  trag- 
edies of  literature  will  the  better  know  how  to  stand  his 
own  great  tests.    To  illustrate:  In  Sophocles'  Antigone, 


COMPOSITION  IN  VERSE  493 

Antigone  suffers  death  because  she  is  true  to  her  pro- 
foundest  religious  views.  Condemned  by  the  laws  of 
the  state,  she  dies;  but  her  very  death  proves  her 
spiritual  victory.  She  lives  in  the  highest  sense.  Job, 
in  the  great  tragedy  bearing  his  name,  suffers  the  great- 
est possible  testing.  He  loses  his  property,  his  children, 
his  friends;  he  suffers  the  most  excruciating  pain  from 
loathesome  disease;  he  is  tempted  even  to  curse  God; 
but  he  holds  true  to  his  conscientious  principles.  He 
stands  the  test,  and  within  the  scope  of  the  play  con- 
tinues to  live  physically  and  spiritually.  In  the  case  of 
Macbeth  the  testing  is  no  greater,  but  the  power  of 
resistance  is  wanting.  Macbeth  dies  both  spiritually 
and  physically  and,  moreover,  it  should  be  noted  that 
he  dies  to  his  higher  nature  first  and  after  that  he  finds 
"nothing  serious  in  mortality." 

The  world's  greatest  tragedies  are  those  of  the  great 
Greeks,  Sophocles,  iEschylus,  and  Euripides;  and 
among  Shakespeare's  plays,  Hamlet,  Lear,  Othello,  Mac- 
beth, and  Julius  Coesar. 

2.  Comedy.  Comedy  represents  life  in  its  less  serious 
aspects,  and  deals  with  its  humors,  its  accidents,  pleas- 
antries, and  follies.  It  does  not  involve  a  testing  of  the 
soul  and  is  not,  of  necessity,  ethical,  though  it  often 
does  contain  a  moral  element.  While  inferior  to  tragedy, 
it  is  essential  in  order  fully  to  portray  human  life. 
Comedy  does  not  deal  with  victims  of  circumstances, 
mere  puppets,  but  with  real  human  beings.  Though 
often  humorous,  it  is  not  frivolous.  It  ends  happily,  for 
there  is  no  reason  for  its  ending  in  any  other  way.    It 


494  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

employs  ridicule  and  satire.  The  ending  cannot  be 
foreseen,  as  in  the  case  of  tragedy;  it  comes  as  a  pleas- 
ant surprise.  Though  some  of  the  great  Shakespearian 
comedies  are  in  verse,  other  comedy  writers  commonly 
employ  prose,  since  it  is  nearer  the  daily  life  repre- 
sented. The  best  poetic  comedies  are  Shakespeare's 
As  You  Like  It,  Twelfth  Night,  and  The  Merchant  of 
Venice.  The  latter  is  sometimes  called  tragi-comedy, 
since  it  approaches  tragedy  in  some  parts. 

3.  The  Mask.  The  mask  differed  from*  the  regular 
drama  in  being  more  simple  in  plot,  in  depending  upon 
music  and  dancing  and  elaborate  scenic  effects,  and  in 
employing  supernatural  characters.  It  was  often  like 
the  morality  plays  in  being  allegorical  and  didactic. 
It  was  also  pastoral  in  form  and  romantic.  The  greatest 
English  mask  is  Milton's  Comus. 

4.  Grand  Opera.  In  grand  opera  we  have  great 
tragedy  arranged  for  singing.  The  best  of  tragedy  and 
the  best  of  music  are  joined  in  the  works  of  Wagner. 

5.  Comic  opera  is  of  no  literary  value,  since  the  music 
so  overshadows  the  words. 

Two  other  forms  of  drama  are  briefly  described  here, 
though  they  rarely  are  written  in  poetic  form. 

6.  Farce.  In  farce  the  effects  are  broad,  involving 
greatly  exaggerated  situations  where  the  characters  are 
mere  victims  of  circumstances  and  have  no  power  of 
rising  above  them.  Shakespeare's  Comedy  of  Errors  is 
not  a  comedy,  but  a  farce. 

7.  Melodrama.  Originally,  melodrama  contained 
much  music  and  was  partly  sung;   to-day  it  abounds 


COMPOSITION  IN  VERSE  495 

in  highly  romantic  and  exaggerated  situations  and  over- 
emphasizes the  pathetic  and  the  comic  elements.  The 
characters  lack  gradation;  are  wholly  good  or  wholly 
bad.  Good  melodrama,  however,  is  not  to  be  despised. 
Owing  to  the  necessity  for  too  great  compression,  dram- 
atizations of  novels  are  usually  melodramas,  e.g.,  Uncle 
Tom's  Cabin  and  St.  Elmo. 

Didactic  Poetry.  As  the  name  implies,  the  aim  of 
this  kind  of  poetry  is  to  instruct.  Some  say  it  should 
not  be  classed  as  poetry  at  all.  While  it  is  not  the  high- 
est form  it  is  an  important  one.  The  literary  world 
could  not  afford  to  leave  it  out.  Didactic  poetry  is  also 
called  philosophical,  reflective,  meditative,  and  moral. 
It  has  been  used  by  many  great  poets.  It  is  written  in 
strict  metrical  form.  The  best  illustrations  are :  Pope's 
Essay  on  Criticism,  Pope's  Essay  on  Man,  and  Pope's 
Moral  Essays  and  Epistles;  Wordsworth's  Prelude. 
Closely  connected  with  this  class  of  poetry,  mention 
should  be  made  of  satirical  and  controversial  verse, 
such  as  Dryden's  Hind  and  Panther,  Pope's  Dunciad, 
and  Lowell's  Fable  for  Critics. 

The  best  way  to  study  poetry  is  to  begin  by  reading 
it  until  one  acquires  a  taste  for  it  and  some  power  of 
appreciation;  then  he  will  be  anxious  to  know  the 
technique  of  poetry  and  find  the  study  of  prosody  far 
from  burdensome  and  a  means  of  further  appreciation, 
while  the  mastery  of  diction,  in  the  use  of  figures  of 
speech,  and  condensation,  will  all  prove  their  value 
and  will  help  in  prose  composition. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
THE  FINISHED   PRODUCT— LITERATURE 

The  finished  product  of  effective  expression  com- 
prises, at  its  best,  what  is  known  as  literature.  We 
shall  not  here  attempt  any  discussion  concerning  the 
exact  nature  of  literature,  for  it  is  one  of  those  words 
whose  denotation  and  connotation  are  so  large  that  a 
wholly  satisfactory  definition  is  impossible.  There  are 
three  things,  however,  that  we  may  mention  as  essen- 
tial characteristics  of  all  literature  which  is  genuine 
and  worthy  of  the  name:  the  content  must  be  worthy; 
it  must  be  so  treated  as  to  be  interesting  and  hence 
make  a  definite  appeal  to  the  reader;  and  it  must  pos- 
sess a  certain  charm  of  style  due  to  the  personal  touch 
of  the  writer.  Literature  consists  of  the  best  of  the 
finished  products  of  the  writers  of  all  the  ages;  those 
writings  which,  because  of  their  fitness,  have  survived 
until  the  present.  In  this  brief  chapter  our  purpose  is 
to  show  the  relation  of  the  finished  product  of  all  the 
ages,  or  literature,  to  the  process  of  making  that  prod- 
uct. Or,  more  briefly,  to  show  the  bearing  literature 
and  composition  have  upon  each  other. 

The  student  may  naturally  say,  "You  do  not  expect 
me  to  produce  literature,  do  you?  I  have  no  ambition 
to  write  literature;  I  want  simply  to  learn  to  write  well 
enough  to  satisfy  my  ordinary  demands."     We  fully 

496 


THE  FINISHED  PRODUCT— LITERATURE        497 

understand  that  attitude,  and  for  that  reason  believe 
we  are  ready  to  show  that  it  is  fundamentally  wrong. 
We  are  well  aware  that  the  distinction  of  producing 
literature  is  an  honor  which  but  few  attain;  but  we  are 
equally  sure  that  a  somewhat  intimate  knowledge  of 
literature  in  most  of  its  forms  is  a  requisite  for  all  who 
would  write  well  enough  to  satisfy  the  demands  of  even 
moderate  attainments  in  education  and  culture.  Liter- 
acy embraces  a  knowledge  of  letters,  or  what  the  French 
call  belles  lettres,  and  that  can  mean  nothing  else  than 
an  appreciation  of  literature. 

The  following  paragraph  from  a  pamphlet  on  The 
Teaching  of  English  in  Secondary  Schools,  issued  by  the 
London  Board  of  Education,  puts  the  case  strongly  in 
favor  of  literature  as  an  aid  in  composition: 

"The  instruction  in  English  in  a  secondary 
school  aims  at  training  the  mind  to  appreciate 
English  literature,  and  at  cultivating  the 
power  of  using  the  English  language  in  speech 
and  writing.  These  objects  are  equally  important 
and  each  implies  the  other.  Without  training 
in  the  use  of  language  literature  cannot  be 
properly  understood  or  properly  appreciated. 
Without  the  study  of  literature  there  can  be  no 
mastery  over  language ;  it  will  not  only  be  loose, 
incorrect,  and  awkward,  but  it  will  also  be  in- 
sufficient for  the  demands  of  life.  The  want 
of  mastery  over  language,  resulting  from  the 
absence  of  training  in  expression,  is  among  the 
most  serious  drawbacks  with  which  those  who 
are  engaged  in  scientific  pursuits  or  practical 
occupations  have  to  contend,  and  which  ham- 


498  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

per  them  even  in  the  very  subjects  in  which 
they  are  most  interested  and  most  proficient. 
Literature  supplies  the  enlarged  vocabulary ?, 
which  is  the  mechanism  of  the  enlarged  thoughtt 
and  for  want  of  which  people  fall  helplessly  back 
upon  slang,  the  base  coin  of  the  language.  Pure 
English  is  not  merely  an  accomplishment,  but 
an  index  to  and  a  formative  influence  over 
character." — W.  N.  Bruce, 

Principal  Assistant  Secretary, 

Board  of  Education,   London,   England 

Since  literature  furnishes  the  models  for  the  student 
to  appreciate  and,  in  a  measure,  to  imitate,  while  he  is 
learning  to  make  his  own  finished  product,  the  question 
arises,  "How  can  one  get  the  most  help  from  litera- 
ture?" Again  the  answer  is  simple:  "Real  knowledge 
and  appreciation  of  literature  come  only  from  first- 
hand study  of  the  works  of  the  great  writers."  The  real 
teachers  of  literature  are  the  great  writers  themselves. 
In  the  chapter  on  "Diction"  we  have  shown  how  true 
Stevenson  found  this.  What  helped  Stevenson  will 
help  anyone  else.  From  the  masters  alone  can  we  learn 
method;  the  only  way  to  learn  from  them  is  to  read 
them,  study  them,  let  them  master  us. 

Here  again  we  have  the  best  of  authority  in  a  bulle- 
tin of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education.  Concern- 
ing the  ends  to  be  attained  by  means  of  teaching  litera- 
ture, it  says: 

1.  "The  literature  lesson  should  broaden, 
deepen,  and  enrich  the  imaginative  and  emo- 
tional life  of  the  student.  Literature  is  pri- 
marily a  revelation  and  interpretation  of  life; 


THE  FINISHED  PRODUCT— LITERATURE         499 

it  pictures  from  century  to  century  the  growth 
of  the  human  spirit.  It  should  be  the  constant 
aim  of  the  English  teacher  to  lead  pupils  so  to 
read  that  they  may  find  their  own  lives  imaged 
in  this  larger  life,  and  attain  slowly,  from  a 
clearer  appreciation  of  human  nature,  a  deeper 
and  truer  understanding  of  themselves. 

2.  "The  study  of  literature  should  arouse  in 
the  minds  of  pupils  an  admiration  for  great 
personalities,  both  of  authors  and  characters 
in  literature.  No  man  is  higher  than  his  ideals. 
Human  beings  grow  unconsciously  in  the  direc- 
tion of  that  which  they  admire.  .  .  .  The  litera- 
ture lesson  must  furnish  the  material  out  of 
which  may  be  created  worthy  and  lasting 
ideals  of  life  and  conduct. 

3.  "The  literature  lesson  should  raise  the 
plane  of  enjoyment  in  reading  to  progressively 
higher  levels.  Reading  is  still  the  chief  recrea- 
tion of  many  people.  It  should  be  the  aim  of 
the  English  teacher  to  make  it  an  unfailing 
source  of  joy  in  the  fives  of  all.  To  make  it 
yield  the  greatest  pleasure  will  involve  the 
consideration  of  literature  not  only  as  to  its 
content  as  a  statement  of  facts  and  ideas,  but 
as  an  art.  ... 

4.  "In  order  that  the  reading  habit  may 
yield  the  pleasure  and  joy  of  which  it  is  capa- 
ble, the  English  lesson  should  give  to  the  stud- 
ent such  knowledge  of  the  scope  and  content 
of  literature  as  will  leave  him  with  a  sense  of 
abundance  of  interesting  material  and  a 
trained  ability  and  desire  to  find  for  himself 
such  intellectual  and  spiritual  food  as  he  may 
need  for  his  growth  and  his  pleasure." 


500  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

Another  question  that  may  be  asked  is,  "Must  we 
study  the  classics,  or  will  modern  literature  suffice? " 
We  answer,  "Read  both."  He  who  omits  the  classics 
entirely  simply  does  not  know  literature.  The  classics 
represent  the  heights  of  literature  and  of  life.  Without 
them  there  can  be  no  raising  of  the  standards  of  literary 
taste.  Through  them  one  learns  to  enjoy  the  things 
that  he  thought  were  beyond  him;  through  them  alone 
can  one  enter  into  the  richest  realm  of  literature  and 
appreciate  life  at  its  best.  So  at  least  a  few  of  the 
classics  should  be  studied  carefully. 

But  that  does  not  mean  that  one  should  confine  him- 
self to  the  older  classics.  The  best  of  the  present-day 
writings  are  classics  in  the  making,  and  well  worthy  of 
the  attention  of  all  students.  Moreover,  the  best  of 
the  books  of  the  present  reflect  the  life  of  our  own  day 
and  so  make  a  more  direct  appeal.  Any  literature,  old 
or  new,  that  was  worth  writing,  is  worth  reading.  Some 
must  be  read  by  all  who  would  know  life  well  enough 
and  have  their  imagination  sufficiently  quickened  to  be 
in  a  position  to  write  with  ease  and  produce  something 
capable  of  arousing  another's  interest.  Thus  the 
finished  product  of  others  may  help  us  make  our 
finished  products  more  than  perfunctory  exercises, 
make  them  the  fullest  expressions  of  our  own  fives  as 
they  grow  richer  and  better. 

Emerson  said: 

"That  book  is  good 
Which  puts  me  in  a  working  mood; 
Unless  to  thought  is  added  will 
Apollo  is  an  imbecile."  ^ 


THE  FINISHED  PRODUCT— LITERATURE         501 

And  all  who  have  read  the  best  literature  know  how 
true  the  statement  is.  The  best  literature  inspires, 
makes  people  want  to  do  something,  puts  them  in  the 
mood  for  it,  puts  the  will  behind  the  thought.  The 
study  of  the  finished  product,  then,  gives  us  facts,  the 
method  of  the  masters,  and  inspiration.  He  who  is  un- 
familiar with  literature  does  not  know  life.  He  who 
would  know  life  at  its  best  must  learn  from  experience 
and  from  literature.  Experience  and  literature  together 
give  the  broad  view  and  the  intimate  view  so  essential 
to  real  culture.  Experience  brings  the  necessary  touch 
or  realism;  literature  adds  the  equally  essential  spirit 
of  idealism.  Together  they  enrich  life  and  make  it  so 
interesting  as  to  demand  expression.  They  impress  us, 
and  impression,  as  we  have  seen,  is  the  necessary 
prerequisite  for  expression,  the  first  great  preparatory 
step. 

Since  composition  is  the  process  whereby  the  raw  mate- 
rial of  thoughts  and  emotions  is  made  into  the  finished 
product  of  effective  expression,  since  life  demands  expres- 
sion in  proportion  to  the  number  and  quality  of  its 
thoughts  and  to  the  intensity  of  its  emotions,  and  since 
literature  comprises  the  best  finished  product  of  all 
who  have  expressed  themselves,  their  thoughts,  and 
their  aspirations,  through  all  the  ages,  we  can  do  no 
better  than  work  under  the  spell  of  "so  great  a  crowd 
of  witnesses,"  feeling  their  inspiration  and  profiting  by 
their  methods.  We  may  profit  by  their  failures  and 
refuse  to  imitate  them;  we  may  profit  by  their  suc- 
cesses and  decline  to  be  satisfied  with  our  own  efforts 


502  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

until  they  approach  the  finished  product  of  the  ages — 
literature. 

There  is  but  one  way  for  us  to  profit  by  the  literature 
of  the  past,  and  that  is  to  learn  it  by  actually  reading 
it.  It  will  not  suffice  to  know  about  it.  Histories  of 
literature  are  excellent  in  so  far  as  they  inform  us  con- 
cerning the  story  of  the  development  of  literature  from 
the  most  primitive  choral  chants,  telling  of  the  great 
movements  of  men  and  their  books.  But  histories  of 
literature,  unless  elaborately  illustrated,  serve  only  to 
introduce  us  to  the  makers  of  literature;,  they  furnish 
us  with  a  catalogue  knowledge  and  little  more.  They 
are  a  good  first  step,  but  only  a  first  step. 

We  must  know  literature  itself  and  know  it  inti- 
mately. The  more  we  know,  about  the  writers  and  of 
the  historical  backgrounds,  the  better.  But  it  is  the 
intimate,  first-hand  experience,  of  literature  itself  that 
counts.    What  and  how  shall  we  read? 

To  some  reading  is  burdensome;  to  others  it  is  one 
of  the  chief  joys  of  life.  If  one  reads  as  he  should  and 
what  he  should,  reading  will  not  long  continue  to  be  a 
task.  The  reason  it  is  a  task  to  so  many  is  that  they 
go  at  it  as  a  task.  They  look  upon  it  as  putting  oneself 
in  a  position  to  be  preached  at  or  lectured.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  one  makes  up  his  mind  to  enjoy  his  reading, 
he  will  enjoy  it  if  he  keeps  at  it  long  enough.  It  is 
when  we  read  for  the  pleasure  of  reading  that  we  get 
the  most  benefit  from  it.  Reading,  like  work,  is  profit- 
able in  proportion  as  it  is  enjoyable. 

There  are,  as  Dr.  Richard  Burton  has  pointed  out, 


THE  FINISHED  PRODUCT— LITERATURE         503 

two  kinds  of  pleasure  to  be  derived  from  reading.  The 
first  is  the  pleasure  of  discovery  and  of  adventure. 
This  comes  to  the  beginner.  There  is  a  remarkable 
fascination  about  it.  It  lures  him  on  into  new  worlds 
and  reveals  to  him  new  peoples  and  new  conditions. 
He  learns  and  he  enjoys  the  process.  This  kind  of 
pleasure  is  good;  but,  after  all,  it  is  somewhat  juvenile. 
It  cannot  last.  There  is  a  possibility  of  its  leading  to 
satiety.    Then  one  is  tempted  to  give  up  reading. 

The  second  kind  of  pleasure  of  reading  is  that  of  re- 
discovery. This  kind  is  of  the  better.  There  is  no 
danger  of  satiety  here.  This  kind  takes  one  into  the 
higher  forms  of  literature,  where  he  comes  under  the 
influence  of  the  master  minds.  The  pleasure  of  re- 
discovery surpasses  that  of  discovery  as  the  meeting  of 
an  old  and  tried  friend  is  greater  than  making  a  new 
acquaintance.  The  more  one  reads  of  real  literature 
the  more  he  finds  allusions  to  what  he  has  read  before; 
the  more  he  sees  that  the  great  conceptions  of  life  are 
the  common  property  of  all  thinkers,  and  he  will  find 
a  new  pleasure  in  seeing  how  different  writers  express 
them.  Different  interpretations  and  applications  of 
the  classic  stories  of  mythology  will  always  come  with 
a  new  charm.  He  will  enjoy  the  cross  currents  of  lit- 
erature, revealing  the  mutual  interdependence  of  writ- 
ers. He  will  discover  that  the  domain  of  literature, 
and  the  domain  of  expression,  is  boundless.  He  will 
find  that  he  has  gradually  been  acquiring  a  literary 
taste  which,  while  it  is  exacting  in  its  demands,  at  the 
same  time  points  the  way  to  satisfy  the  demands. 


504  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

There  can  be  no  over-satisfaction  for  such  a  reader. 
Life  is  too  short  to  enable  him  to  explore  all  the  laby- 
rinths in  so  rich  a  paradise. 

Begin,  then,  with  being  temporarily  satisfied  with  the 
primal  joy  of  discovery;  continue  your  reading  until 
you  have  tasted  the  higher  joy  which  has  perennial 
power  to  lead  you  on  and  on  to  the  heights  of  life  "  with 
a  glimpse  of  a  height  that  is  higher."  Then  you  will 
know  and  appreciate  literature.  Then  you  will  have  a 
new  and  a  stronger  motive  to  seek  and  to  find  satis- 
faction in  making  out  of  your  thoughts  and  emotions 
finished  products  of  effective  expression;  you  will  have 
proved  that  you  cannot  do  your  best  until  you  have 
learned  to  bring  literature  to  your  aid  in  composition. 

We  have  little  faith  in  the  value  of  lists  of  the  "hun- 
dred best  books,"  " five-foot  shelves,"  and  " pigskin 
libraries."  There  is  no  such  thing  as  the  hundred  best 
books  for  everybody.  What  we  purpose  to  do  is  simply 
to  offer  a  few  suggestions,  with  the  hope  that  they 
guide  those  who  follow  them  to  choose  for  themselves 
and  to  specialize,  if  they  so  desire,  as  they  plan  for  the 
reading  of  a  lifetime. 

The  kinds  of  literature  are  four,  all  of  which  should 
be  at  least  partially  known  before  one  narrows  his 
reading  down  to  any  one  class — history  (including  biog- 
raphy), poetry,  the  essay,  and  fiction. 

1.  History  and  Biography.  The  least  history  with 
which  one  can  hope  to  understand  the  allusions  in  other 
literature,  includes:  a  general  history  of  the  ancient 
world,  a  continental  history,  a  history  of  England,  and 


THE  FINISHED  PRODUCT— LITERATURE         505 

an  adequate  history  of  America.  The  latter,  to  be 
really  adequate,  should  include  the  works  of  Parkman, 
Prescott,  John  Fiske,  Woodrow  Wilson,  and  James 
Ford  Rhodes.  For  good  measure  read  the  lives  of  the 
American  statesmen. 

Biography  indirectly  gives,  as  a  by-product,  much 
historical  information,  but  its  chief  value  lies  in  its 
intimate  knowledge  of  the  men  who  have  helped  shape 
the  world's  history  and  events,  who  have  made  litera- 
ture and  reproduced  life.  Boswell's  Life  of  Johnson  is 
generally  considered  one  of  the  greatest  biographies. 
Every  one  should  read  it  not  only  to  appreciate  the  great 
literary  dictator,  but  to  appreciate  the  spirit  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  Then  read  generously  from  that 
great  series,  the  English  Men  of  Letters,  and  other 
similar  series.  Biography  is  most  satisfying  and  it 
creates  an  appetite  for  greater  literature.  It  and  his- 
tory prepare  the  way  for  appreciating  literature. 

2.  Poetry.  Poetry  registers  the  high-water  mark  of 
literature.  It  records  the  best  thoughts  in  the  best 
form.  It  touches  the  heart  and  appeals  to  the  emotions 
as  no  other  form  of  literature  can.  It  supplies  a  human 
need  that  nothing  else  can  satisfy.  It  is  the  most  in- 
spiring form.  It  makes  the  supreme  appeal  to  the 
imagination.  And  yet  it  is  the  literature  that  many 
think  they  can  ignore.  But,  as  we  have  shown  in  the 
chapter  on  the  "  Composition  in  Verse,"  it  is  the  most 
fruitful  form  of  expression  to  study  as  a  preparation  for 
writing.    Hence  these  suggestions: 

Wordsworth  tells  what  poetry  is  to  him,  and  his 


506  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

poems  are  the  proof  that  the  unseen  world  of  the  imag- 
ination is  real  to  those  who  "see  into  the  life  of  things." 
Consequently  he  is  a  good  poet  through  whom  to  learn 
to  appreciate  poetry.  Read  his  Lines  Written  a  Few 
Miles  Above  T intern  Abbey  to  get  his  poetic  creed,  and 
to  appreciate  the  power  of  the  imagination  to  perpet- 
uate and  to  idealize  past  experiences.  Then  read  Tine 
Daffodils,  and  the  sonnet  The  World  Is  Too  Much  With 
Us,  to  illustrate  the  truth  learned  in  Tintern  Abbey. 
Selections  from  The  Prelude  outline  the  "  growth  of  a 
poet's  mind/'  and  give  further  corroboration  of  his 
thesis.  Then  if  you  read  the  first  hundred  lines  of  The 
Recluse  and  The  Ode  on  Intimations  of  Immortality  From 
Recollections  of  Early  Childhood,  especially  the  last  three 
stanzas,  you  will  be  in  a  position  to  appreciate  poetry. 

Read  selected  poems  from  such  anthologies  as :  New- 
comber's  and  Andrews'  Twelve  Centuries  of  English 
Poetry  and  Verse,  Boynton's  American  Poetry,  or  Page's 
Chief  American  Poets,  and  for  current  poetry,  High 
Tide — Poems  of  Joy  and  Vision. 

Read  selected  poems  of  individual  poets,  beginning 
with  Longfellow  and  Tennyson,  who  are  popular  favor- 
ites, and  should  be  known  intimately;  after  which 
familiarize  yourself  with  the  representative  poems  of 
Burns,  Scott,  Coleridge,  Byron,  Shelley,  and  Keats, 
to  appreciate  the  revival  of  romanticism. 

Read  extensively  such  American  poets  as  Poe,  Lowell, 
Emerson,  Whittier,  and  Lanier,  to  know  what  your  own 
country  has  contributed  to  world  literature. 

By  this  time  you  will  be  ready  for  Shakespeare,  whom 


THE  FINISHED  PRODUCT— LITERATURE         507 

you  cannot  really  know  until  you  have  carefully  read 
at  least  fifteen  of  his  plays.  Milton  will  now  appeal  to 
you,  and  this  is  a  good  time  to  learn  enough  of  the 
great  world  poets — Homer,  Dante,  Goethe,  to  under- 
stand the  debt  of  other  poets  to  them. 

Browning  is  the  greatest  of  the  modern  poets — strong, 
robust,  virile,  and  optimistic.  Do  not  be  misled  by 
fears  of  failure  to  comprehend  him.  Begin  with  his 
shorter  poems.  They  will  thrill  you.  Then  study  Rabbi 
Ben  Ezra,  Saul,  Abt  Vogler,  for  Browning's  philosophy. 
By  this  time  you  will  hunger  for  more  and  be  ready  for 
Paracelsus  and  The  Ring  and  the  Book,  the  epic  of  the 
commonplace,  and  one  of  the  greatest  poems  of  modern 
times. 

Alfred  Noyes  and  John  Masefield  are  the  best  of  the 
present-day  English  poets,  and  should  be  read  extensively. 

The  foregoing  suggestions  are  sufficient  to  develop 
the  latent  poetic  susceptibilities  for  all  who  will  follow 
them.  Alter  that  they  will  need  no  further  incentive 
than  their  own  desire  and  no  further  guide  than  their 
own  taste. 

3.  The  Essay.  The  essay,  like  poetry,  seems  uninviting 
to  those  who  view  it  from  afar  and  with  prejudice.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  essay  resembles  lyric  poetry  in  that 
it  is  the  most  personal  and  subjective  form  of  literature, 
with  the  single  exception  of  the  letter. 

"The  essayist  is  among  the  freest  of  literary  practi- 
tioners. There  is  imposed  upon  him  no  limit  of  either 
method  or  theme.  There  are  no  imperious  or  auto- 
cratic unities  to  trouble  him.     There  are  no  conven- 


508  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

tions  to  curtail  the  liberty  of  his  spirit.  He  may  select 
any  theme,  treat  it  in  any  way,  intrude  his  own  opin- 
ions or  reflections,  insist  upon  his  own  prejudices,  inter- 
sperse his  most  serious  passages  with  grotesque  humor, 
pass  at  will  from  familiar  gossip  to  impassioned  elo- 
quence, act  in  all  things  as  he  pleases,  with  a  complete- 
disregard  of  any  will  but  his  own,  and  no  one  will  com- 
plain so  long  as  his  page  is  interesting.  He  is  the  Ariel 
of  literature,  and  sometimes  even  the  Puck.  That  very 
irresponsibility,  which  in  graver  writers  would  be 
counted  a  misdemeanor,  in  him  becomes  a  charm.' ' 
— The  Genesis  of  the  Essay:  William  J.  and  Coningsby  W.  Dawson 

Representative  essays  to  read: 

The  classic  essay:  Bacon's  Love  and  Studies,  Milton's 
Search  After  Truth. 

The  critical  essay:  Lowell's  Among  My  Books,  Haz- 
litt's  Hamlet,  Mabie's  Essays  on  Criticism,  Bradford's 
Friends  on  the  Shelf,  Phelps's  Essays  on  Modern  Novelists. 

The  biographical  essay,  sometimes  called  narrative 
and  critical:  Macaulay's  Addison  and  Milton,  De 
Quincey's  Joan  of  Arc,  Emerson's  A  Visit  to  Words- 
worth, Carlyle's  Burns,  and  Stevenson's  Some  Aspects 
of  Robert  Burns. 

The  familiar  or  informal  essay:  Addison  and  Steele's 
Spectator  Papers  (mostly  familiar,  while  some  are  crit- 
ical and  short  story  essays),  Lamb's  Christ's  Hospital 
Five  and  Thirty  Years  Ago,  Grace  Before  Meat,  A  Dis- 
sertation on  Roast  Pig,  Poor  Relations;  Richard  Dow- 
ling's  My  Copy  of  Keats;  De  Quincey's  English  Mail 


THE  FINISHED  PRODUCT— LITERATURE        509 

Coach;  David  Grayson's  Adventures  in  Friendship  and 
The  Friendly  Road,  Henry  van  Dyke's  Days  Off  and 
Fisherman's  Luck;  and  Samuel  McChord  Crothers'  The 
Gentle  Reader  and  Among  Friends. 

4.  Fiction,  the  Novel  and  the  Short  Story.  Here  we  have 
the  most  popular  reading  in  which  everyone  indulges 
and  concerning  which  but  little  need  be  said.  So  many, 
however,  are  misled  into  thinking  that  the  only  fiction 
worthy  of  their  attention  is  that  fresh  from  the  press, 
that  a  word  of  caution  is  necessary.  That  much  very 
readable  fiction  is  being  produced  every  year  is  a  well- 
known  fact,  but  it  is  not  worthy  to  supplant  the  great 
novels  of  the  nineteenth  century.  No  one  can  presume 
to  know  literature  who  does  not  appreciate  the  most 
representative  works  of  Jane  Austen,  Charlotte  Bronte, 
Scott,  Dickens,  Thackeray,  George  Eliot,  Charles 
Reade,  Thomas  Hardy,  and  Robert  Louis  Stevenson. 
Of  these,  Dickens,  with  his  humanitarian  spirit  and  his 
humor,  has  touched  more  hearts  than  any  other  novel- 
ist ;  Thackeray  has  depicted  a  different  world  from  the 
one  Dickens  knew,  and  he  has  done  it  with  a  master 
hand;  George  Eliot,  the  philosopher  and  psychological 
analyst,  has  delved  deep  into  the  study  of  humanity, 
and  her  works  will  always  be  read  by  those  who  want 
to  see  the  motive  behind  men's  actions;  Charles  Reade, 
the  dramatic  novelist,  has  written  the  greatest  romance 
of  mediaeval  life,  The  Cloister  and  the  Hearth,  and  pro- 
duced even  novels  of  purpose  with  an  abiding  interest; 
Thomas  Hardy,  the  greatest  artist  of  them  all,  though 
he  deals  with  tragic  themes,  has  produced  many  un- 


510  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

dying  characters  and  told  their  stories  in  The  Return 
of  the  Native,  Far  From  the  Madding  Crowd,  The 
Mayor  of  Casterbridge,  The  Woodlanders,  and  Tess  of  the 
D'Urbervilles,  with  a  charm  of  style  that  few  can  resist; 
while  Stevenson,  in  a  great  variety  of  ways,  has  secured 
a  permanent  place  among  novelists.  Hardy  and  Steven- 
son are  the  two  whose  style  will  prove  most  helpful  for 
those  who  are  ambitious  to  write  well. 

Hawthorne,  James  Lane  Allen,  Mark  Twain,  William 
Dean  Howells,  and  Booth  Tarkington  are  the  Ameri- 
cans who  are  most  representative  of  our  best  fiction. 

When  such  novelists  as  we  have  mentioned  have  been 
widely  read,  one  will  have  acquired  such  a  criterion  of 
judgment  as  to  enable  him  to  make  wise  selections  from 
among  the  many  books  published  each  year. 

The  Short  Story.  The  short  story  has  come  to  have 
a  prominent  place  with  fiction  readers.  While  these 
stories  are  too  short  to  deal  adequately  with  large 
themes,  they  give  excellent  cross  sections  of  life  and 
picture  incidents,  and  draw  minor  characters  in  a  way 
that  makes  them  good  reading  for  busy  people.  The 
short  story  has  a  place  of  its  own,  and  a  worthy  place, 
but  it  should  not  be  allowed  to  crowd  out  the  novel. 

Poe,  Irving,  and  Hawthorne  are  the  pioneers  of  the 
short  story,  which,  for  reasons  it  is  not  necessary  to 
give  here,  is  a  distinctly  American  product.  They 
should  be  read  to  appreciate  the  evolution  of  this  form 
of  literature.  The  one  great  English  short-story  writer 
is  Kipling,  and  he  should  be  read.  Others  who  have 
contributed  stories  worth  while  are :  Bret  Harte,  Mark 


THE  FINISHED  PRODUCT— LITERATURE       511 

Twain,  Mary  E.  Wilkins  Freeman,  Mary  Raymond 
Shipman  Andrews,  Thomas  Nelson  Page,  and  O.  Henry. 

The  more  one  knows  of  the  principles  and  qualities 
required  by  rhetoric,  the  more  he  will  appreciate  the 
work  of  the  masters.  The  more  one  discovers  that 
which  is  good  in  what  he  reads,  and  appreciates  why  it 
is  good,  the  more  that  goodness  will  react  upon  himself 
and  help  him  to  grow  in  his  ability  to  write  with  clear- 
ness, force,  and  elegance.  Do  not  think  that  reading 
with  an  eye  to  an  author's  style  will  make  your  reading 
mechanical  and  make  you  hypercritical.  It  is  far  from 
mechanical  and  it  makes  the  reader  more  sympathetic 
and  appreciative.  The  writer  of  these  words,  who  has 
for  years  been  a  reader,  never  enjoyed  reading  so  much 
as  while  seeking  illustrative  material  for  this  book. 

The  purpose  of  this  chapter  has  been  to  help  the 
writer  get  all  the  help  possible  from  his  reading,  and  to 
suggest  what  that  reading  should  be  and  how  it  should 
be  done.  If  any  have  the  too  common  idea  that  litera- 
ture consists  of  all  the  dull  books  written  by  men  who 
died  long  ago,  we  trust  that  Arnold  Bennett's  very 
different  conception,  that  literature  tells  of  the  "  miracu- 
lous inter estingness  of  life,"  will  cure  them. 

In  his  Elements  of  Physics,  where  we  should  scarce 
expect  such  words,  Professor  Arnott  said: 

"And  in  a  corner  of  my  house  I  have  books! 
The  miracle  of  all  my  possessions,  more  won- 
derful than  the  wishing-cap  of  the  Arabian 
Tales ;  for  they  transport  me  instantly,  not  only 
to  all  places,  but  to  all  times.     By  my  books 


512  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

I  can  conjure  up  before  me,  to  vivid  existence, 
all  the  great  and  good  men  of  antiquity;  and 
for  my  individual  satisfaction  I  can  make  them 
act  over  again  the  most  renowned  of  their  ex- 
ploits: the  orators  declaim  for  me;  the  histori- 
ans recite;  the  poets  sing,  and  from  the  equator 
to  the  pole,  or  from  the  beginning  of  time  un- 
til now,  by  my  books,  I  can  be  where  I  please." 
In  his  Sesame  and  Lilies  Ruskin  has  shown  what 
reading  has  required  of  us  and  what  it  does  for  us: 
" These  (great  books)  are  all  at  your  choice; 
and  life  is  short.  You  have  heard  as  much 
before;  yet  have  you  measured  and  mapped 
out  this  short  life  and  its  possibilities?  Do 
you  know,  if  you  read  this,  that  you  cannot 
read  that ;  that  what  you  lose  to-day  you  can- 
not gain  to-morrow?  Will  you  go  and  gossip 
with  your  housemaid  or  your  stable  boy,  when 
you  may  talk  with  queens  and  kings,  or  flatter 
yourselves  that  it  is  with  any  worthy  con- 
sciousness of  your  own  claims  to  respect  that 
you  jostle  with  the  hungry  and  common  crowd 
for  entree  here,  and  audience  there,  when  all 
the  while  this  eternal  court  is  open  to  you  with 
its  society,  wide  as  the  world,  multitudinous 
as  its  days — the  chosen  and  mighty  of  every 
place  and  time?  Into  that  you  may  enter 
always;  in  that  you  may  take  fellowship  and 
rank  according  to  your  wish;  from  that,  once 
entered  into  it,  you  can  never  be  an  outcast 
but  by  your  own  fault;  by  your  aristocracy  of 
companionship  there  your  own  inherent  aris- 
tocracy will  be  assuredly  tested,  and  the  mo- 
tives with  which  you  strive  to  take  high  place 
in  the  society  of  the  living,  measured  as  to  all 


THE  FINISHED  PRODUCT— LITERATURE         513 

the  truth  and  sincerity  that  are  in  them,  by 
the  place  you  desire  to  take  in  this  company 
of  the  dead. 

"The  place  you  desire  and  the  place  you  fit 
yourself  for,  I  must  also  say  because,  observe, 
this  court  of  the  past  differs  from  all  living 
aristocracy  in  this — it  is  open  to  labor  and  to 
merit,  but  to  nothing  else.  No  wealth  will 
bribe,  no  name  overawe,  no  artifice  deceive, 
the  guardian  of  those  Elysian  gates.  In  the 
deep  sense,  no  vile  or  vulgar  person  ever  enters 
there.  At  the  portiers  of  that  silent  Faubourg 
Saint-Germain  there  is  but  brief  question :  Do 
you  deserve  to  enter?  Pass.  Do  you  ask  to 
be  the  companion  of  nobles?  Make  yourself 
noble,  and  you  shall  be.  Do  you  long  for  the 
conversation  of  the  wise?  Learn  to  understand 
it  and  you  shall  hear  it.  But  on  other  terms? 
No.  If  you  will  not  rise  to  us  we  cannot  stoop 
to  you.  The  living  lord  may  assume  courtesy, 
the  living  philosopher  may  explain  his  thought 
to  you  with  considerate  pain;  but  here  we 
neither  feign  nor  interpret.  You  must  rise  to 
the  level  of  our  thoughts  if  you  would  be  glad- 
dened by  them,  and  share  our  feelings  if  you 
would  recognize  our  presence." 

Mrs.  Browning  also  tells  us  how  to  read: 

"We  get  no  good 
By  being  ungenerous,  even  to  a  book, 
And  calculating  profits — so  much  help 
By  so  much  reading.     It  is  rather  when 
We  gloriously  forget  ourselves,  and  plunge 
Soul-forward,  headlong,  into  a  book's  profound, 
Impassioned  for  its  beauty,  and  salt  of  truth — 
'Tis  then  we  get  the  right  good  from  a  book." 


APPENDIX 


Symbols  Used  in  Marking  Compositions 

A. — Ambiguous.     Misplacement  of  phrases,  clauses,  etc. 

Ant. — Trouble  with  the  antecedent:  no  antecedent,  two  or  more 
possible  ones,  or  lack  of  agreement  with  antecedent. 

Awk. — Clumsy  expression.     Awkward. 

Cap. — Use  capital. 

01. — Quality  of  clearness  lacking;  vague,  indefinite,  obscure,  or 
ambiguous.    Confusion  of  ideas. 

Coh. — Lacks  coherence.  Parts  do  not  hang  together.  S.  Con., 
f  Coh.,  and  C.  Coh.,  used  respectively  to  indicate  lack  of  coherence 
in  the  sentence,  in  the  paragraph,  and  in  the  whole  composition. 

Con. — Connection  faulty:  no  connectives,  wrong  connectives, 
transitional  clause  necessary  to  give  proper  sequence. 

Condense. — Too  many  words  used,  or  involved  construction. 

Consult. — Consult  teacher  for  fuller  criticism. 

Cstn. — Construction  faulty;  awkward,  wrong,  involved.  Gram- 
matically and  rhetorically  bad. 

D. — Consult  dictionary  for  spelling,  etymology,  meaning,  or 
usage  of  word  indicated. 

E. — Not  good  English.     Unidiomatic,  foreign  construction,  etc. 

Eu. — Inelegant.     Principle  of  euphony  violated.     Harsh  sound. 

Exp. — Expand.  Insufficient  development  for  so  important  an 
idea. 

Fig. — Error  in  use  of  figure.  Forced,  far-fetched,  not  in  keeping 
with  subject.     Mixed  figures. 

F.  W. — Too  pretentious;   overdone;   entirely  out  of  keeping. 

G. — Good.     Meritorious.    A  commendation. 

Gr. — Grammar  bad.    Find  your  error. 

Inv. — Involved.    Simplify  it. 

514 


APPENDIX  515 

Kp. — Out  of  keeping  with  subject  and  proper  treatment — e.g., 
falling  into  colloquial  expressions  in  dealing  with  a  dignified  sub- 
ject, use  of  slang,  etc.     Principle  of  taste  violated. 

1.  c. — Change  capital  to  small  letter. 

Ms. — Manuscript  bad.  Not  neat,  slovenly,  poorly  written, 
margins  wrong. 

P. — Punctuation  wrong  or  inadequate. 

Pos. — Word  or  phrase  or  clause  out  of  proper  place.  "Only" 
is  a  comon  offender. 

Quo. — Quotation  incorrect,  or  incorrectly  punctuated,  or  in- 
applicable. 

R. — Avoid  repetition  of  word  or  unpleasant  repetition  of  same 
sound. 

Sent. — Not  best  kind  of  sentence.  Monotony  in  use  of  same 
kind  of  sentence.  Cultivate  variety.  Cultivate  the  periodic 
sentence. 

SI. — Slang.     It  indicates  carelessness,  or  worse. 

Sp. — Wrong  spelling. 

Sub. — Violation  of  principles  of  coordination  and  subordination. 
Perhaps  a  complex  sentence  would  improve  matters.  Recast 
sentence. 

Taut. — Tautology.  Useless  repetition  weakens  effect;  a  viola- 
tion of  force  and  economy. 

Tr. — Transpose  sentence  for  sake  of  clearness. 

U. — Principle  of  unity  violated.     Unrelated  or  incongruous  ideas. 

W. — Weak,  commonplace,  hackneyed:  no  force.  Applied  to 
words  and  sentences;  sometimes  to  whole  compositions,  when 
nothing  worth  while  is  said  or  when  what  is  said  is  wholly  lacking  in 
interest. 

% — Begin  new  paragraph  here. 

No  ^f. — Do  not  begin  a  paragraph  here. 

8 — Take  out. 

[  1 — Rewrite  part  inclosed  within  brackets. 

(  ) — Omit  part  inclosed. 

O — Close  up  words  wrongly  separated. 

?  ? — Statement  questioned.     Verify  it  or  modify  it. 

A — Something  evidently  omitted.     Supply. 

J  — Indent. 

When  it  is  desired  to  suggest  an  omitted  punctuation  mark  put 
a  caret  where  it  should  be,  and  indicate  on  the  margin  opposite 
what  mark  to  use — e.g.,  -,',,. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  composition  indicate  the  general  value 


516  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

of  the  composition  by  the  use  of  such  words  as  Excellent,  Good, 
Fair,  Poor,  and  Very  Poor. 

At  the  end  of  the  manuscript  write  a  brief  criticism  telling  the 
prevailing  faults  and  pointing  out  excellencies.  Make  criticism 
constructive,  such  as  will  help  to  reduce  the  faults  and  to  increase 
the  number  of  excellencies.  While  on  the  alert  to  show  errors  be 
equally  ready  to  encourage  honest  effort.  If  there  is  improvement, 
say  so. 

II 

The  following  quotations  are  for  study  in  paragraph 
development.  They  may  also  be  used  to  show  the 
overlapping  or  the  combination  of  the  various  forms 
of  discourse,  and  as  models  of  forms  of  discourse  to  be 
identified. 


"Lamb's  literary  style  is  unique.  If  style  be  meas- 
ured by  the  faithfulness  with  which  it  reveals  the  per- 
sonality of  the  writer,  then  Lamb's  must  be  nearly  per- 
fect. To  attempt  any  imitation  of  it  would  be  to  fall 
into  intolerable  precosity.  In  force  and  compass,  of 
course,  he  is  not  to  be  ranked  with  the  greatest  men; 
but  nobody's  work  is  more  exquisite.  To  use  a  phrase 
more  commonly  applied  to  painters,  I  should  call  Lamb 
one  of  the  Little  Masters.  His  diction  is  a  study  in 
verbal  values.  He  had  a  nice  sense  of  the  significance 
of  words,  the  aroma  of  association.  He  loved  to  elab- 
orate a  statement  slowly,  lingering  over  its  details  and 
tasting  the  flavor  of  every  phrase  with  deliberate  relish. 
But  the  charm  of  his  style  is  due  most  of  all  to  the 
constant  presence  of  his  imagination.  His  thought  is 
always  concreting  itself  in  illustration  or  example,  and 


APPENDIX  517 

in  almost  every  line  blossoms  into  some  rare  or  grace- 
ful fancy.  It  is  so  spontaneous  that  the  reader  hardly 
appreciates  its  richness;  but  in  reality — if  the  homely 
phrase  may  be  pardoned — there  is  more  imagination 
to  the  square  inch  in  Lamb's  writing  than  in  almost 
any  other  modern  prose." 

— A  Group  of  English  Essayists:  C.  T.  Winchester 

"The  berries  were  not  the  round  and  rosy  ones  of  the 
meadow,  but  the  long,  slender,  dark  crimson  ones  of 
the  forest.  One,  two,  three;  no  more  on  that  vine;  but 
each  one  as  it  touched  my  lips  was  a  drop  of  nectar 
and  a  crumb  of  ambrosia,  a  concentrated  essence  of  all 
the  pungent  sweetness  of  the  wildwood,  sapid,  pene- 
trating, and  delicious.  I  tasted  the  odor  of  a  hundred 
blossoms  and  the  green  shimmering  of  innumerable 
leaves  and  the  sparkle  of  sifted  sunbeams  and  the 
breath  of  highland  breezes  and  the  song  of  many  birds 
and  the  murmur  of  flowing  streams — all  in  a  wild 
strawberry." 

— Fisherman's  Luck,  A  Wild  Strawberry:  Henry  van  Dyke 

"  Among  all  our  novelists  his  (Thackeray's)  style  is 
the  purest,  as  to  my  ear  it  is  also  the  most  harmonious. 
Sometimes  it  is  disfigured  by  a  slight  touch  of  affecta- 
tion, by  little  conceits  which  smell  of  the  oil;  but  the 
language  is  always  lucid.  The  reader,  without  labor, 
knows  what  he  means,  and  knows  all  that  he  means. 
As  well  as  I  can  remember,  he  deals  with  no  episodes, 
I  think  that  any  critic,  examining  his  work  minutely, 
would  find  that  every  scene,  and  every  part  of  every 


518  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

scene,  adds  something  to  the  clearness  with  which  the 
story  is  told.  Among  all  his  stories  there  is  not  one 
which  does  not  leave  on  the  mind  a  feeling  of  distress 
that  women  should  ever  be  immodest  or  men  dishonest, 
and  a  feeling  of  joy.  How  we  hate  the  idle  selfishness 
of  Pendennis,  the  worldliness  of  Beatrix,  the  craft  of 
Becky  Sharpe!  How  we  love  the  honesty  of  Colonel 
Newcombe,  the  nobility  of  Esmond,  and  the  devoted 
affection  of  Mrs.  Pendennis !  The  hatred  of  evil  and 
the  love  of  good  can  hardly  have  come  upon  so  many 
readers  without  doing  much  good." 

— From  An  Autobiography:  Anthony  Trollope 

"The  congregation  was,  in  those  days,  of  a  really 
rural  character.  City  fashions  were  as  yet  unknown,  or 
unregarded,  by  the  country  people  of  the  neighborhood. 
Steamboats  had  not  as  yet  confounded  town  with  coun- 
try. A  weekly  market  boat  from  Tarrytown,  the  Far- 
mer's Daughter,  navigated  by  the  worthy  Gabriel  Requa, 
was  the  only  communication  between  all  these  parts 
and  the  metropolis.  A  rustic  belle  in  those  days  con- 
sidered a  visit  to  the  city  in  much  the  same  light  as  one 
of  our  modern  fashionable  ladies  regards  a  visit  to 
Europe — an  event  that  may  possibly  take  place  once 
in  the  course  of  a  lifetime,  but  to  be  hoped  for  rather 
than  expected.  Hence  the  array  of  the  congregation 
was  chiefly  after  the  primitive  fashions  existing  in 
Sleepy  Hollow;  or  if,  by  chance,  there  was  a  departure 
from  the  Dutch  sunbonnet,  or  the  apparition  of  a 
bright  gown  of  flowered  calico,  it  caused  quite  a  sen- 


APPENDIX  519 

sation  throughout  the  church.  As  the  dominie  gener- 
ally preached  by  the  hour,  a  bucket  of  water  was  prov- 
idently placed  on  a  bench  near  the  door,  in  summer, 
with  a  tin  cup  beside  it,  for  the  solace  of  those  who 
might  be  athirst,  either  from  the  heat  of  the  weather 
or  the  drought  of  the  sermon." 

— Wolfert's  Roost:  Washington  Ikving 

"He  (Byron)  died  among  strangers  in  a  foreign  land, 
without  a  kindred  hand  to  close  his  eyes;  yet  he  did 
not  die  unwept.  With  all  his  faults  and  errors,  and  pas- 
sions and  caprices,  he  had  the  gift  of  attaching  his 
humble  dependents  warmly  to  him.  One  of  them,  a 
poor  Greek,  accompanied  his  remains  to  England,  and 
followed  them  to  the  grave.  I  am  told  that,  during  the 
ceremony,  he  stood  holding  on  by  a  pew  in  an  agony 
of  grief,  and  when  all  was  over,  seemed  as  if  he  would 
have  gone  down  into  the  tomb  with  the  body  of  his 
master — a  nature  that  could  inspire  such  attachments 
must  have  been  generous  and  beneficent." 

— Newstead  Abbey:  Washington  Irving 

"The  character  of  Hamlet  stands  quite  by  itself.  It 
is  not  a  character  marked  by  strength  of  will  or  even 
of  passion,  but  by  refinement  of  thought  and  sentiment. 
Hamlet  is  as  little  of  the  hero  as  a  man  can  well  be;  but 
he  is  a  young  and  princely  novice,  full  of  high  enthusi- 
asm and  quick  sensibility — the  sport  of  circumstances, 
questioning  with  fortune  and  refining  on  his  own  feel- 
ings, and  forced  from  the  natural  bias  of  his  disposition 


520  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

by  the  strangeness  of  his  situation.  He  seems  inca- 
pable of  deliberate  action,  and  is  only  hurried  into  ex- 
tremities on  the  spur  of  the  occasion,  when  he  has  no 
time  to  reflect,  as  in  the  scene  where  he  kills  Polonius; 
and  again  where  he  alters  the  letters  which  Rosen- 
crantz  and  Gildenstern  are  taking  with  them  back  to 
England,  purporting  his  death.  At  other  times,  when 
he  is  most  bound  to  act,  he  remains  puzzled,  undecided, 
and  skeptical;  dallies  with  his  purposes  till  the  occasion 
is  lost,  and  finds  out  some  pretense  to  relapse  into 
indolence  and  thoughtfulness  again.  For  this  reason  he 
refuses  to  kill  the  king  when  he  is  at  his  prayers,  and  by 
a  refinement  in  malice,  which  is  in  truth  only  an  excuse 
for  his  own  want  of  resolution,  defers  his  revenge  to  a 
more  fatal  opportunity,  when  he  shall  be  engaged  in 
some  act  'that  hath  no  relish  of  salvation  in  it.'" 

— The  Characters  of  Shakespeare's  Plays:  William  Hazlitt 

"A  round  year  of  the  earth's  changes  enters  into  the 
creation  of  the  hemp.  The  planet  has  described  its 
vast  orbit  ere  it  be  grown  and  finished.  All  seasons  are 
its  servitors;  all  contradictions  and  extremes  of  nature 
meet  in  its  making.  The  vernal  patience  of  the  warm- 
ing soil;  the  long,  fierce  arrows,  of  the  summer  heat, 
the  long  silvery  arrows  of  the  summer  rain;  autumn's 
dead  skies  and  sobbing  winds;  winter's  sternest,  all- 
tightening  frosts.  Of  none  but  strong  virtues  it  is  the 
sum.  Sickness  or  infirmity  it  knows  not.  It  will  have 
a  mother  young  and  vigorous,  or  none;  an  old  or  weak 
or  exhausted  soil  cannot  produce  it.    It  will  endure  no 


APPENDIX  521 

roof  of  shade,  basking  only  in  the  eye  of  the  fatherly 
sun,  and  demanding  the  whole  sky  for  the  walls  of  its 
nursery." — The  Reign  of  Law:  James  Lane  Allen 

"Here  we  were  crosswise  in  the  rapids,  apparently 
ready  to  seesaw,  using  the  obstructing  stone  as  a  ful- 
crum, but  not  in  reality,  for  as  we  settled  back  a  little 
and  the  upper  gunwale  dropped,  the  water  rushed  in, 
immersing  the  Small  Boy,  whereupon  the  two  end  men 
jumped  out  and  hastily  beached  the  canoe  for  such 
slight  repairs  as  the  imaginative  reader  can  readily  con- 
jecture. This,  our  only  accident,  accounts  for  the  fact 
that  we  have  no  pictures  as  souvenirs  of  this  trip — for 
immersion  is  not  good  for  cameras." 

— Canoe  Stories:  Charles  Elbert  Rhodes 

" Milton  would  not  have  excelled  in  dramatic  writing; 
he  knew  human  nature  only  in  the  gross,  and  had  never 
studied  the  shades  of  character,  nor  the  combinations 
of  concurring,  nor  the  perplexity  of  contending  passions. 
He  had  read  much,  and  knew  what  books  could  teach, 
but  had  mingled  little  in  the  world,  and  was  deficient 
in  the  knowledge  which  experience  must  confer." 
— The  Lives  of  the  Most  Eminent  English  Poets:  Samuel  Johnson 

".  .  .  I  was  once  told  that  the  surest  aid  to  the  writ- 
ing of  a  book  was  a  piece  of  cobbler's  wax  on  my  chair. 
I  certainly  believe  in  the  cobbler's  wax  much  more 
than  the  inspiration. 

"It  will  be  said,  perhaps,  that  a  man  whose  work  has 


522  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

risen  to  no  higher  pitch  than  mine  has  attained,  has 
no  right  to  speak  of  the  strain  and  impulses  to  which 
real  genius  is  exposed.  I  am  ready  to  admit  the  great 
variations  in  brain  power  which  are  exhibited  by  the 
products  of  different  men,  and  am  not  disposed  to  rank 
my  own  very  high;  but  my  own  experience  tells  me  that 
a  man  can  always  do  the  work  for  which  his  brain  is 
fitted  if  he  will  give  himself  the  habit  of  regarding  his 
work  as  a  normal  condition  of  his  life.  I  therefore  ven- 
ture to  advise  young  men  who  look  forward  to  author- 
ship as  the  business  of  their  lives,  even  when  they  pro- 
pose that  their  authorship  be  of  the  highest  class 
known,  to  avoid  enthusiastic  rushes  with  their  pens, 
and  to  seat  themselves  at  their  desks  day  by  day 
as  though  they  were  lawyer's  clerks;  and  so  let  them 
sit  until  the  allotted  task  shall  be  accomplished." 

— An  Autobiography:  Anthony  Trollope 

"  Conversation  with  men  of  polite  genius  is  another 
method  of  improving  our  natural  taste.  It  is  impossible 
for  a  man  of  the  greatest  parts  to  consider  anything  in 
its  whole  extent  and  in  all  its  variety  of  lights.  Every 
man,  besides  those  general  observations  which  are  to 
be  made  upon  an  author,  forms  several  reflections  that 
are  peculiar  to  his  own  manner  of  thinking;  so  that 
conversation  will  naturally  furnish  us  with  hints  which 
we  did  not  attend  to,  and  make  us  enjoy  other  men's 
parts  and  reflections  as  well  as  our  own.  This  is  the 
best  reason  I  can  give  for  the  observation  which  several 
have  made,  that  men  of  great  genius  in  the  same  way 


APPENDIX  523 

of  writing,  seldom  rise  up  singly,  but  at  certain  periods 
of  time  appear  together  and  in  a  body,  as  they  did  at 
Rome  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  and  in  Greece  about 
the  age  of  Socrates.  I  cannot  think  that  Corneille, 
Racine,  Moliere,  Boileau,  la  Fontaine,  Bruyere,  Bossu, 
or  the  Dacieis  would  have  written  so  well  as  they  have 
done  had  they  not  been  friends  and  contemporaries." 
— Spectator  Paper  No.  409:  Addison 

"In  order  to  set  this  matter  in  a  clear  light  to  every 
reader,  I  shall,  in  the  first  place,  observe  that  a  meta- 
phor is  a  simile  in  one  word,  which  serves  to  convey 
the  thoughts  of  the  mind  under  resemblances  and 
images  which  affect  the  senses.  There  is  not  anything 
in  the  world  which  may  not  be  compared  to  several 
things,  if  considered  in  several  distinct  lights;  or,  in 
other  words,  the  same  thing  may  be  expressed  by  dif- 
ferent metaphors.  But  the  mischief  is  that  an  unskill- 
ful author  shall  run  these  metaphors  so  absurdly  into 
one  another  that  there  shall  be  no  simile,  no  agreeable 
picture,  no  apt  resemblance,  but  confusion,  obscurity, 
and  noise.  Thus  I  have  known  a  hero  compared  to  a 
thunderbolt,  a  lion,  and  the  sea;  all  and  each  of  them 
proper  metaphors  for  impetuosity,  courage,  or  force. 
But  by  bad  management  it  hath  so  happened  that  the 
thunderbolt  hath  overflowed  its  banks,  the  lion  hath 
been  darted  through  the  skies,  and  the  billows  have 
rolled  out  of  the  Libyan  Desert." 

— Spectator  Paper  No.  595:  Addison 


524  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 

"  There  are  many  who  would  laugh  at  the  idea  of  a 
novelist  teaching  either  virtue  or  nobility — those,  for 
instance,  who  regard  the  reading  of  novels  as  a  sin, 
and  those  who  think  it  to  be  simply  an  idle  pastime. 
They  look  upon  the  tellers  of  stories  as  among  the  tribe 
of  those  who  pander  to  the  wicked  pleasures  of  a  wicked 
world.     I  have  regarded  my  art  from  so  different  a 
point  of  view  that  I  have  ever  thought  of  myself  as 
a  preacher  of  sermons,  and  my  pulpit  as  one  which 
I  could  make  both  salutary  and  agreeable  to  my  audi- 
ence.    I  do  believe  that  no  girl  has  risen  from  the 
reading  of  my  pages  less  modest  than  she  was  before 
and  that  some  may  have  learned  from  them  that  mod- 
esty is  a  charm  well  worth  preserving.     I  think  that 
no  youth  has  been  taught  that  in  falseness  and  flashi- 
ness  is  to  be  found  the  road  to  manliness;   but  some 
may  perhaps  have  learned  from  me  that  it  is  to  be 
found  in  truth  and  in  a  high  but  gentle  spirit.    Such 
are  the  lessons  I  have  striven  to  teach;    and  I  have 
thought  it  might  best  be  done  by  representing  to  my 
readers  characters  like  themselves — or  to  which  they 
might  liken  themselves." 

— An  Autobiography:  Anthony  Trollope 


INDEX 


Abbottsford,  311;  315;  332 

Abstract,  The,  357 

Abt  Vogler,  507 

Acatalectic,  474 

Addison,  Joseph,  112;  328;  523 

Adonais,  490 

Mneid,  The,  233;  487 

Aeschylus,  493 

A  fortiori  argument,  416 

Alexandrine  stanza,  485 

Allegory,  456 

Allen,    James   Lane,   276;   282; 

314;  510;  521 
Alliteration,  464 
Allusion,  458 

American  Commonwealth,  The,  356 
American  Poetry,  506 
Amphibrach,  473 
Anapest,  472 
Ancient  Mariner,  The,  233;  246; 

262;  463;  464;  478;  488 
Andrews,  Mary  R.  S.,  511 
Angelus,  The,  295 
Anglicisms,  68 
Anticlimax,  463 
Antigone,  257;  492 
Antiquary,  The,  291 
Antithesis,  462 
A  -posteriori  reasoning,  413 
Apostrophe,  85;  457 
Apostrophe  to  the  Ocean,  458 
A  priori  reasoning,  406;  412 
Argumentation,  387-450 

and  narration,  265 

formal,  417 

from  analogy,  415 

from  example,  414 

from  sign,  414 

informal,  388 

material  of,  396 
Arnold,  Matthew,  193;  490 
Arnott,  Niel,  511 


Articulation,  185 
As  You  Like  It,  257;  491;  494 
Austen,  Jane,  509 
Autobiography,  252;  332;  394;  518; 
522;  524 

Backlog  Studies,  253 

Ballads,  228-231;  478 

Bannockburn,  202 

Barbarisms,  56-58 

Barnaby  Rudge,  244 

Begging  the  question,  411 

Bell,  Ralcy  Husted,  53 

Bells,  The,  460 

Ben  Ezra,  507 

Beowulf,  461;  487 

Bible,  The,  68;  455;  461;  462;  463; 

464 
Black  Beauty,  265 
Blue  Bird,  The,  456 
Bonnie  George  Campbell,  228 
Book  Reviews,  360 
Boswell,  James,  505 
Breathing,  181 
Brief,  parts  of,  426-431 

body,  428-431 

conclusion,  431 

introduction,  427 

oral  development  of,  444 
Bronte,  Charlotte,  136-138;  509 
Browning,    Elizabeth    B.,     484; 

486;  513 
Browning,    Robert,   29;  39;  43; 

194;  297;  457;  479;  482;  507 
Bruce,  W.  N.,  498 
Brut,  464;  488 

Bryant,  William  C,  40-42;  481 
Bryce,  James,  357 
Bunyan,  John,  456 
Burke,    Edmund,    24;   89;    105; 
106;  107;  113;  116;  398;  408; 
415;  416;  464 


525 


526 


EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 


Burns,    Robert,   202;   483;  484; 

485;  488;  490;  506 
Burroughs,  John,  6 
Burton,  Richard,  367;  502 
Byron,  Lord,  188;  202;  455;  457; 

458;  479;  484;  485;  506 

Caesura,  476 

Californian,  20 

Canoe  Stories,  246;  521 

Canterbury  Tales,  The,  226 

Carlyle,  Thos.,  264 

Cask  of  Amontillado,  The,  234;  236; 

246 
Catalectic,  474 
Changing  Values  of  English  Speech, 

The,  53 
Chapter  on  Ears,  A,  33 
Characters  of  Shakespeare's  Plays, 

The,  520 
Chaucer,  Geoffrey,  21;  226;  484 
Chevy  Chase,  488 
Chief  American  Poets,  506 
Childe  Harold,  455;  457;  458;  462; 

485 
Chillon,  202 
Choriambus,  473 
Clark,  S.  H.,  78 
Clearness,  17 

quality  of,  25-27 

right  word  for,  79-83 
Climax,  463 

Cloister  and  the  Hearth,  The,  509 
Cloud,  The,  489 
Coherence,  22;  222 

in  description,  303 

in  narration,  255 
Coleridge,  Samuel  Taylor,  81; 
105;  125;  233;  246;  263;  463; 
464;  478;  488;  506 
Comedy,  493 

Comedy  of  Errors,  257;  494 
Comic  opera,  494 
Commemoration  Ode,  489 
Composition,  A, 

and  rhetoric,  1 

definition  of,  3 

in  verse,  467 

material  for,  6-10 
Comus,  174;  359;  459;  464;  494 
Concord  Hymn,  461 
Connotation,  75-79;  172;  173 


Cotter's  Saturday  Night,  The,  485 
Courtship  of  Miles  Standish,  The. 

233 
Cranford,  80 
Criticism,  360-371 
definition  of,  361 
C  rot  hers,  Samuel  McChord,  33 
Cuckoo,  To  the,  455 
Curtis,  George  William,  37 

Dactyl,  472 

Daddy  Long  Legs,  227 

Daffodils,  The,  305;  462;  490;  506 

Dante,  482;  487;  507 

Darwin,  Charles,  43 

David  Balfour,  226 

David  Copperfield,  222;  300 

Dawson,  W.  J.andC.W.,  132;  508 

Death  of  Thomas  Carlyle,  105 

Declaration,  211 

Deduction,  405 

fallacies  in,  410-412 
Denotation,  75;  172;  173 
DeQuincey,  Thomas,  106 
Description,  275 

definition  of,  337 

detailed,  301 

diction  in,  309 

exact  and  artistic,  289 

informal,  296-301 

in  narration,  262-264 

kinds  of,  290-294 

material  of,  278 
Deserted  Village,  The,  488 
Details,  The  Grouping  of,  303 
Dickens,  Charles,  19;  28;  39;  43; 
108;  126;  222;  226;  244;  249; 
300;  355;  509 
Diction,  definition  of,  52 

oral,  168;  334 
Dictionaries,  71;  74 
Discussion  and  debate,  417 
Divine  Comedy,  The,  482,  487 
Don  Juan,  479;  485 
Doyle,  Conan,  226;  413 
Drake,  The,  487 
Dramatization,  256-261 
Dryden,  John,  87;  481;  495 
Dunciad,  495 

Editorial,  The,  371 
Elegance,  17 


INDEX 


527 


quality  of,  36-38 
right  word  for,  85 

Elements  of  Physics,  511 

Eliot,  George,  104;  222;  247;  251; 
509 

Elision,  475 

Emerson,    R.  W.,  74;  461;  490; 
500;  506 

Emphasis,  471 

methods  of  securing,  304-309 

English,  Course  in,  Regents,  219- 
223 

English   Humorists   of   the   Eight- 
eenth Century,  109 

English  Literature,  History  of,  347 

English  Men  of  Letters,  505 

Enoch  Arden,  488 

Enthymeme,  409-410 

Enumeration,  185 

Epithet,  460 

Equivocation,  411 

Errors  in  substance,  411 

Essay  on  Addison,  339;  346;  393 

Essay  on  Criticism,  495 

Essay  on  Man,  495 

Essays  of  Elia,  122-124;  458 

Essays  to  read,  list  of,  506 

Essentials  of  Good  Speaking,  The, 
176 

Euphonious  words,  88-90 

Euripides,  493 

Evading  the  issue,  411 

Evangeline,  472;  473;  476 

Eve  of  St.  Agnes,  193;  293;  485 

Everyman,  456;  488 

Evidence,  397,  399,  401 

Exclamation,  464 

Exercises 

in  applying  rhetorical  principles, 

57 
in  argumentation,  447-450 
in  description,  321-324 
in  diction,  92 
in  dramatization,  259-262 
in  exposition,  381-386 
in  letter  writing,  161-164 
in  organizing  material,  13-15 
in  paragraph  development,  128 
in  planning  pageants,  262 
in  theme  writing.,  270-274 
in  use  of  figures  of  speech,  465 

Excursion,  77 


Exposition,  326 

and  argumentation,  333 

and  narration,  264 

and  synonyms,  336 

by  analysis,  372 

by  cause  and  effect,  345 

by  definition,  337 

characteristics  of,  327 

definition  of,  334 

differs  from  description,  327 

of  character,  353 

outline  in,  374 
Expository  Composition,  Plan  of, 

379 
Expression,  Impression  and,  3 

purpose  of,  16 

Fable  for  Critics,  A,  479;  495 
Fairie  Queene,  The,  456;  485;  488 
Fall  of  the  House  of  Usher,  The,  81- 

83;  85;  295 
Farce,  494 
Far  from  the  Madding  Crowd,  290; 

316;  318;  350;  353;  510 
Feet, 

poetic,  471 

substituted,  473 
Figures  of  Speech,  451 
Fine  writing,  87 
Finished  product,  The,  496 
Fisherman's  Luck,  330;  517 
Fiske,  John,  505 
Flag  Day  Address,  191 
Force,  17 

quality  of,  27-36 

right  word  for,  83-85 
Forsaken  Merman,  The,  193 
Franklin,  Benjamin,  332 
Freeman,  Mary  E.  Wiikins,  511 
Functions  of  the  Chorus  in  the  Greek 
Tragic  Drama,  The,  105 

Gaskell,  Mrs.,  80 

Genesis  of  the  Essay,  The,  508 

Gentle  Reader,  The,  33 

Gesture,  205;  206 

Goethe,  von,  J.  W.,  507 

Goldsmith,  Oliver,  479;  488 

Good  use,  66-69 

Gosse,  Edmund,  119-121;  348 

Grand  opera,  494 

Gray,  Thomas,  472;  483;  490 


528 


EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 


Gray's  Elegy,  472;  483;  490 
Grayson,  David,  37 

Great  English  Letter  Writers,  The, 

132;  134 
Green,  John  Richard,  93 

Group  of  English  Essayists,  A,  127; 
517 

Hamlet,  69;  257;  459;  493 
Hardy,  Thomas,  232;  282;  290; 

315-320;  329;  350;  351;  353; 

509 
Harte,  Bret,  510 
Haunted  Palace,  The,  76 
Hawthorne,  Nathaniel,  39;   43; 

510 
Hazlitt,  William,  312;  520 
Heir  of  Redclyffe,  The,  315 
Helen,  76 
Henry,  O.,  511 
Henry  Esmond,  264 
Henry  IV,  462 
Hermit,  The,  477 
Heroine  in  Bronze,  The,  276;  281 
Hiawatha,  472;  473 
High  Tide,  506 

Hind  and  the  Panther,  The,  495 
History  of  English  Literature,  119 
Holmes,    Oliver    Wendell,    65; 

484 
Homer,  233;  487;  507 
How  They  Brought  the  Good  News 

from  Ghent  to  Aix,  29 
Howells,  William  D.,  510 
Hyperbole,  465 
Hypercatalectic,  474 

Iambus,  471 

Idioms,  84 

Idylls  of  the  King,  487,  488 

Iliad,  The,  233;  487 

II  Penseroso,  457;  459 

Immortality,  Ode  on,  468;  489 

Impression 

and  expression,  3 

the  first  general,  303 
Improprieties,  58-66 
Induction,  402 

fallacies  of,  403,  404 
Inflection,  198 
In  Memoriam,  478;  479:  490 
Interest  as  a  result  of  Force,  332 


Interpretation  of  the  Printed  PageT 

78 
Interrogation,  464 
Intimations  of  Immortality, 

ode  on,  506 
Irving,    Washington,    37;    311; 

315;  331;  393;  510;  519 
Issues, 

clash  and,  418 

finding,  419 

Johnson,  Samuel,  481;  521 
Jonson,  Ben,  481 

Julius  Ccesar,  258;  390;  415;  493 

Keats,  John,  193;  293;  485;  489; 

506 
Kennedy,  Charles  R.,  456 
Kilmer,  Joyce,  38 
King  Lear,  493 
Kipling,  Rudyard,  297;  484;  510 

U Allegro,  457;  459;  461;  490 
La  Belle  Dame  sans  Merci,  293 
Lamb,  Charles,  33;  34;  122-125; 
312;    313;    338;    344;    458; 
459 
Lancelot  and  Elaine,  247;  465 
Langlande,  477 
Lanier,  Sidney,  506 
Last  Leaf,  The,  484 
Lay  a  mo  n,  464;  488 
Lead,  Kindly  Light,  489 
Letter  writing,  130-164 

business  letters,  154-159 

formal  notes,  152-154 

friendly  letters,  134-152 

good  form  in,  133 

place  of,  131 

titles,  141-145 
Life  of  Johnson,  505 
Limiting  the  subject,  373 
Lincoln,  Abraham,  136 
Literary  Clinic  Papers,  The,  37 
Literature,  92-103;  504-513 

essay,  the,  507-509 

fiction,  509-511 

history  and  biography,  504 

poetry,  505 
Little  Dorrit,  18- 
Lives  of  the  Poets,  The,  521 
Local  point  of  view,  279 


INDEX 


529 


Longfellow,  Henry  W.,  233;  307; 

461;  472;  473;  476;  482;  488 
Lord  Byron  to  Thomas  Moore,  138 
Lorna  Doone,  226 
Louse,  To  a,  484 
Lowell,  J.  R.,  474;  479;  489;  495; 

506 
Lycidas,  490 
Lyric,  the  simple,  490 

McCarthy,  Justin,  342 
McCosh,  James,  453 
Macaulay,   T.   B.,   90-100;   102; 

113;  339;  346;  393;  412 
Macbeth,  28;  247;  257;  280;  463; 

465;  493 
Madison,  James,  397 
Maeterlinck,  Maurice,  456 
Maidenhood,  482 
Marmion,  202;  487 
Masefield,  John,  507 
Mask,  the,  494 
Maud,  488 
Mayor  of  Casterbridge,  The,  315; 

510 
Melodrama,  494 
Merchant  of  Venice,  The,  241;  459; 

494 
Metaphor,  85;  455 
Metonymy,  460;  462 
Milton,  John,  37;  38;  174;  351; 

457;  458;  460;  461;  464;  487; 

490;  494 
Moral  Essays  and  Epistles,  495 
Morgan,  Angela,  44 
Music,  Ode  to,  489 
My  Heart  Leaps  Up,  490 
Mystery  of  Edwin  Drood,  The,  244 

Narration,  225; 

action  in,  246 

characters  in,  248 

climax  in,  254 

conversation  in,  251 

kinds  of,  225 

material  of,  227 

motivation  in,  2g5 

point  of  view  in, 7226 

plot,  238 

simple,  237 
National  use,  67-68 
Nearer,  My  God,  to  Thee,  489 


Newcomber  and  Andrews,  506 
Newman,  John  Henry,  92-103; 
113;  489 

Newstead  Abbey,  519 
Noyes,  Alfred,  37;  487;  507 

Observation,  correct,  310 

Ode,  the,  489 

Ode  on  a  Grecian  Urn,  489 

Odyssey,  The,  487 

Old  Curiosity  Shop,  The,  226 

Oliver  Twist,  108;  126;  355 

Onomatopoeia,  460 

Open  system,  152 

Oral  composition,  165 

differs  from  written,  168 

paragraph  in,  167 

planning  for,  175 

practice  in,  208 
Oral  phrasing,  169 
Othello,  493 

Our  Mutual  Friend,  249 
Outline,  an,  essentials  of,  375 

Pacchiarotte,  479 

Paeon,  473 

Page,  Thomas  Nelson,  511 

Pageants,  259 
Pagett,  MXP.,  297 
Paradise  Lost,  287 
Paragraphs,  93 

definition  of,  93 

development  of,  107-111 

in  narration,  244 

introductory,  105 

isolated,  103 

length  of,  93-96 

necessity  for,  93 

related,  104 

summarizing,  106 

topic  sentence,  96,  103 

transitional,  105 
Parallelism,  463 
Parkman,  Francis,  505 
Parliamentary  Law,  221 
Pendennis,  352 
Personal  touch,  the,  38 
Personification,  85;  456 
Persuasion,  447 
Peter  Bell,  457;  468 
Philosophy  Four,  298 
Phyrric,  473 


530 


EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 


Piers  Plowman,  477 
Pilgrim's  Progress,  456 
Pitch,  196 

Plot  Development,  239 
Poe,  Edgar  Allan,  76;  81-83;  85; 
194;  234;  236;  243;  246;  248; 
263;  294;  413;  460;  464;  469; 
506;  510 
Poems  of  Childhood,  464 
Poet,  The,  41 
Poetry,  487 

didactic,  495 

dramatic,  490-497 

epic,  487 

lyric,  488-490 
Poise,  179 
Poor  Relations,-  338 
Pope,  Alexander,  463;  477;  495 
Prelude,  The,  495;  506 
Premise,  major  and  minor,  407 
Prescott,  William  H.,  505 
Present  use,  68 
Pronunciation,  185 
Proportion,  222 

and  emphasis,  23-25 

in  narration,  255 
Proposition,  the,  418 
Psychology,  453 
Purpose  of  this  book,  3 

Quaker's  Meeting,  A,  34 
Qualities  of  the  finished  product, 
25-37 

Races  of  Men,  The  Two,  313 

Rape  of  the  Lock,  463 

Raven,  The,  248;  263;  294;  464 

Reade,  Charles,  245;  509 

Reader's  Guide,  The,  9 

Reading  aloud,  209,  210 

Rebuttal,  445-447 

Recluse,  The,  506 

Redundancy,  88 

Reeve,  Arthur,  413 

Refutation,  445 

Reign  of  Law,  The,  521 

Repetition,  463 

Reputable  use,  67 

Requisites  of  the  short  story,  242 

Return  of  the  Native,    The,   282; 

317;  329;  349;  510 
Reviewing  a  novel,  361 


Revision,  49 
Rhetoric, 

composition  and,  1 

definition  of,  2 
Rhodes,  Charles  E.,  246;  521 
Rhodes,  James  F.,  505 
Rhyme,  470;  477;  480 
Rhythm,  470;  475 

variations  in,  473 
Rime  Royal,  484 
Ring  and  the  Book,  The,  507 
Robin  Hood,  488 
Roget,  P.  M.,  81 
Rosetti,  D.  Gu  486 
Ruling  Passion,  The,  52 
Ruskin,  John,  37;  66;  89;  512 

Saul,  283;  297;  507 

Scarlet  Letter,  The,  39 

Scorn  Not  the  Sonnet,  486 

Scott,  Sir  Walter,  202;  266;  291; 

487;  506;  509 
Seasons,  The,  488 
Second  Speech  on  Copyright,  98 
Self-mastery,  176,  189 
Sermon  on  Coleridge,  312 
Servant  in  the  House,  The,  456 
Sesame  and  Lilies,  512 
Shakespeare,  William,  28;  31- 

32;  37;  38;  54;  64;  68;  194; 

241;  247;  257;  258;  259;  294; 

380;  390;  415;  458;  462;  463; 

465;  487;  490;  491;  493;  494 
She  Dwelt  Among  Untrodden  Waysr 

76 
Shelley,  Percy  Bysshe,  458;  469; 

482;  483;  484;  489;  490;  506 
Sherlock  Holmes,  226 
Short  story,  the,  510 
Silas  Marner,  222;  247 
Simile,  454 
Sir  Patrick  Spens,  229 
Sketches  Old  and  New,  19 
Skylark,  To  a,  458;  484;  489 
Slang,  63 
Slurring,  475 
Smith,  F.  Hyatt,  37 
Solecisms,  66 
Song  of  England,  A,  37 
Sonnet,  The,  29;  485-487;  488 
Sophocles,  257;  492;  493 
South  Sea  House,  The,  312 


INDEX 


531 


Spectator  Papers,  112;  328;  523 
Speech  on  Conciliation  with  Amer- 
ica, 24;  107;  398;  408;  415;  416 
Speeches,  kinds  of,  212-215 

after-dinner,  213;  218 

announcements,  212 

conversation,  216 

introductions,  212 

lecture,  215 

oration,  214 
Spenser,  Edmund,  456;  485;  488 
Spondee,  461 
St.  Elmo,  495 
Stages  in  process  of  learning  to 

write,  118 
Stanzas,  471;  480 

definition  of,  481 

kinds  of,  481-487 
Statue  and  the  Bust,  482 
Stevenson,    Robert   Louis,   90- 

92;  226;  233;  236;  509 
Story-telling,  222  ' 
Stowe,  Harriet  Beecher,  233;  258 
Study  of  Words,  On  the,  34;  40;  341 
Style,  38 

Suggestive  description,  296-301 
Superannuated  Man,  The,  344 
Syllogism,  406-409 
Synecdoche,  460 

Tale  of  Two  Cities,  A,  28;  222 
Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn,  488 
Tarn  O'Shanter,  488 
Tarkington,  Booth,  510 
Tautology,  89 
Teaching  of  English  in  Secondary 

Schools,  The,  497 
Tennyson,  Alfred,  247;  465;  469; 

472;  475;  476;  478;  479;  487; 

488;  490 
Tess  of  the  D'  Urbervilles,  510 
Testing  work,  44-50 
Thackeray,  W.  M.,  109;  264;  352; 

509 
Thesaurus,  81 
Thompson,  James,  488 
Threnody,  490 
Thyrsis,  490 
T intern  Abbey,  457;  506 
Titles  in  letter  writing,  141-145 

subject  and,  11 
To  a  Mouse,  490 


To  a  Mountain  Daisy,  490 

Tone,  189-196 

Topic  sentence,  the,  96-103 

Tragedy,  492 

Treasure  Island,  226;  233;  236 

Trial  of  Warren  Hastings,  The,  106 

Trochee,  472 

Trollope,    Anthony,    252;    396; 

518;  522;  524 
Twain,  Mark,  19;  96;  510 
Twelfth  Night,  494 
Twelve  Centuries  of  English  Poetry 

and  Verse,  506 
Two  Poets  of  Croisic,  The,  457 

Ulalume,  295 

Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,  -233;  258;  495 
Under  the  Greenwood  Tree,  320 
Undertaker's  House,  The,  297 
United  States  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion, 498 
Unity,  18;  222 
in  narration,  255 

Value  of  an  adequate  dictionary, 

the,  71-74 
Van   Dyke,    Henry,   37;  52;  89; 

140;  146;  330;  489;  517 
Verbosity,  88 
Verse,  471 

Very  Hard  Cash,  245 
Virgil,  233;  487 
Vision  of  Sir  Launfal,  The,  474 
Vision  of  Sudden  Death,  106 
Vital  words,  83 
Vocabulary  building,  70 
Vocalization,  182 
Voice  training,  184;  189;  190;  191 
Vulgarisms,  57 

Wagner,  Richard,  494 

War  Message,  192 

Warner,  Charles  Dudley,  252 

Webster,  Jean,  227 

West  Wind,  Ode  to  the,  482 

What  method  to  use,  112-128 

What  We  Are  Fighting  For,  26 

Whitman,  Walt,  105 

Whittier,  J.  G.,  506 

Wilson,  Woodrow,  26;  140;  145; 

191;  192;  193;  505 
Winchester,  C.  T,  127;  459;  517 


532 


EFFECTIYE  EXPRESSION 


Wister,  Owen,  298 

Wolf  erf  s  Roost,  391;  519 
Woodlanders,  The,  316;  327;  510 
Woodstock,  266 
Woodworth,  Samuel,  472 
Wordsworth,  William,  6;  52;  76; 

77;  305;  306;  445;  457;  464; 

468;  483;  486;  489;  490;  495; 

505;  506 


Work,  44 

World  Is  Too  Much  With  Us,  The, 

506 
Writer's  problem,  the,  69 
Writings  of  Edgar  Allan  Poe,  The. 

375 

Ye  Flowery  Banks,  483 
Yonge,  Charlotte  M.,  315 


IB  36967 


4G0972 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


